Review of Related Studies

2. Theory of Patriarchy

According to Maggie Humm in Feminism A Reader, “Patriarchy is thus the system of male oppression of women” Humm, 1992: 103. This theory is in line with Walby’s theory cited by Jane and Imelda in 50 Key Concepts in Gender Studies, “Patriarchy is a system of social structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress, and exploit women” Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 95. From the theories, the writer understands that in the patriarchal system, men are categorized as superior because they have more power compared to women who are deemed inferior. Sometimes, men’s power and superiority are used to dominate, oppress, and exploit women. Still based on Walby, he also identified that men tend to oppress women through the six structure of patriarchy which are household production, paid work, the state, male violence, sexuality, and culture. Therefore, this condition will only ma ke women’s right and freedom limited both in private or public sphere Pilcher and Whelehan, 2004: 95. Besides, Adrienne Rich as cited by Hester Eisenstein in Contemporary Feminist Thought said, Patriarchy is the power of the fathers: a familial-social, ideological, political system in which men —by force, direct pressure, or through ritual, tradition, law, and language, customs. Etiquette, education, and the division of labor, determine what part women shall or shall not play, and in which the female is everywhere subsumed under the male Eisenstein,

1983: 5. From the theory above, the writer understands that when men realize their

power, they use it to control women by dictating women’s role in the society. Women are conditioned to accept their inferiority because from early childhood, women are trained to accept this system without any questions. Millet as cited by Hester Eisenstein stated that for the women what is mean by “normal” is being passive, while for men is being active. As men, they have characteristics, like tenacious, aggressive, curious, and ambitious, while women have characteristics, like affectionate, obedient, kind, and friendly Eisenstein, 1983: 5. The patriarchal ideology is even greater in Islamic world. This ideology is always shown through the sto ry of prophet’s life and Sharia. According to Al Hibri cited by Mehrdad Darvishpour in Islamic Feminism: Compromise or Challenge to Feminism? , there is an assumption that woman is a source of temptation and sin in Islamic world, like in the story of Adam and Eve. He argues that Eve is symbol of temptation and sin. God was declared male, and man was declared to be created in His likeness. Eve became the symbol of temptation and sin. The woman was consequently judged as a less likely candidate for salvation and everlasting life in heaven than man Darvishpour, 2003: 1. Since Islam perceives woman has a power, it makes men try to restrict women’s power. How? First, they are isolating men and women in different world, men in public while women in private. Second, women who are the source of temptation and sin should cover their face when they are in public. Third, when they want to go outside, they should be guided with men’s protection. Actually, those rules are reflecting the patriarchy in Islamic world in which men want to keep their superiority and domination over women’s power.

3. Theory of Radical Feminism

Feminism is the ideology of women’s liberation since women always suffer from the inequality because of their sex Humm, 2012: 94. The writer provides the theory of radical feminism in order to justify women’s oppression which is caused by patriarchy and how to solve it. According to Maggie Humm in The Dictionary of Feminist Theory, radical feminism focuses on the root of male domination and claims that all forms of oppression are the extension of male supremacy or patriarchy Humm, 2012: 231. The extension of patriarchy in which male is perceived as superior to female justifies them to oppress women in society. The strategies that are used by men in maintaining women status as inferior are spreading intimidation, terrorism, and fear. Therefore, the only way to make the women opt out from the oppression is by breaking the patriarchy which is always glorified by radical feminist. Thus radical feminist aims to destroy this sex- class system by using women’s power Humm, 2012: 231. This idea is strengthened by Rosemarie Tong in Feminist Thought: A More Comprehensive Introduction , she said that patriarchy which is characterized by power, dominance, and hierarchy that can’t be reformed but only ripped out the root of it. “It is not just patriarchy’s legal and political structures that must be overturned on the way women’s liberation. Its social and cultural institutions especially the family and organized religion must also be uprooted” Tong, 2009: 2. Therefore, radical feminists perceived themselves as revolutionaries rather than reformers because their goal is changing the system by participating in radical social movement, such as the civil-rights movement Tong, 2009: 48.

4. Theory of Resistance

According to Stellan Vinthagen in Understanding “Resistance”: Exploring definitions, perspectives, forms and implications, “Resistance is an act done by someone subordinate, that is response to power, do challenge power, and contain at least a possibility, that power gets undermined by the act” Vinthagen, 2007: 7. Power here is a matter of subordinate and super-ordinate or a hierarchy. “Thus resistance is the kinds of actions which dissolves, undermines, questions or challenges such subordination and ultimately, produce non- subordinate relation” Vinthagen, 2007: 7. Still based on Vinthagen, there are two forms of resistance which are nonviolence and constructive resistance. Firstly, nonviolent resistance is an act which is against violence without using violence. There are seven basic forms of nonviolence resistance, they are Discursive resistance example: fact finding, Competition example: building the new society and social system that we want instead of that which we resist, Non-cooperation example: boycotts, Selective cooperation example: by helping your opponent with relief work during a sudden natural catastrophe, Withdrawal example: by escape to other countries or areas, Hindrance example: intervention, and Humoristic undermining self-irony Vinthagen, 2007: 12. Secondly, constructive resistance is a resistance that creates new and different social relation and institutions, not only hindering or undermining them Vinthagen, 2007: 12. In the end, resistance not only responds and challenges the power but also creates a new social structure which negates power logic Vinthagen, 2007: 13.