reader understand the texts. The concept that readers process both visual representations of verbal information and of objects to create meaning. Pressley
and National Reading Panel referred this mental imagery, that skill contributes to comprehension and enhances memory of the text. In addition, Center et al and
Brown et al found statistically significant correlations between visualization training and reading comprehension scores of students when used as part of a
multiple-strategy instruction intervention. 4 Working Memory
Working memory has also been identified as an important part of reading comprehension. Rothlisberger et al stated that working memory is defined as an
executive function responsible for keeping and updating information in the mind. Further, working memory is responsible for managing the process of extracting
information from text and integrating it with prior knowledge to create meaning. Sequences of text-based information are held in working memory and integrated
with new incoming text and with prior knowledge held in long-term memory. 5 Reasoning and Inference.
Inferential reasoning is the ability to use information in the text to determine additional information that implied by the text. National Foundation for
Educational Research discovered that the ability to draw inferences is directly related to reading comprehension ability. The process of inferential reasoning
requires both short-term and long-term memory, as the provider of background knowledge combined with the text to arrive at the implicit information from the
text
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7
Amy L. Moore, M.A., A Research Review of Cognitive Skills, Strategies, and Interventions for Reading Comprehension, Retrieved from http: learningrx.comreading-
comprehension-research-paper.pdf, p. 2.
3. Kinds of Reading a. Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is an activity where the reader focused on the aims and tasks of reading. Usually, intensive reading means to develop general reading
skill, such as vocabulary development, grammar learning, learning expressions in the text, even translating the passage. Sometimes in the classroom, teacher asks
students to scan for specific information and skimming for main ideas as a part of intensive reading activity.
However, intensive reading has several limitations. Students may not interest with the text given by the teacher, also intensive reading activity using short text
example which decrease the students’ chance to read fluently. The difference on students background knowledge is affecting on the goals in the activity, students
with low vocabulary knowledg e might need teacher’s help in this part. In addition,
students are pacing with the time to meet the goals and the low level students could be failed in meeting the goals of the activity.
b. Extensive Reading
Harmer states that extensive reading is a reading activity but with pleasure.
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Reading with pleasure means the activity of reading itself brings confidence and enjoyment for the reader. For students, extensive reading includes reading novels,
newspaper, magazine or other materials. Students pick the materials themselves and read at their own pace, they could read as much as possible. This activity
usually done outside the classroom, teacher only give the students recommendations about what should they read or guiding the students what are
the goals after reading. Though extensive reading is useful for students, it could be challenging for
the teacher. It took a lot of time for teacher assessing students’ journal on their extensive reading activity, also extensive reading program is costly and time
consuming to set up if the materials are not enough for the students. Then,
8
Jeremy Harmer, How to Teach English: 2
nd
Edition, England: Pearson Education Limited, 2007, p. 99.
students who’s already experience intensive reading program may not believe in the extensive reading program way to learn language.
4. Models of Reading
These models of reading represent the process of general reading comprehension based on their purpose, they are:
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a. Bottom-up Model
Bottom-up model indicates that the reader learning the text letter by letter or word by word to get understanding of the whole text. According to Gough
1972
, it is begin by translating the parts of written language letters into speech sounds,
after that piece the sounds together to form individual words, and then piece the words together to arrive at an understanding of the author’s written message.
Bottom up model uses only a little background knowledge from the reader.
b. Top-down Model
This model represents type of reader who knows what they expect from the text, and they mostly have their own goals when reading the text. The reader will
direct their eyes to the information they wanted to find in the text.
c. Interactive Model
The interactive model is a combined model which it takes the word recognition technique from bottom up model and background knowledge to
understand the text then look for the key ideas by using top down model.
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William Grabe and Fredrika L. Stoller, Teaching and Researching Reading, England: Pearson Education, 2002, p. 25.
