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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter deals with the discussion on the related literatures to support the study. The discussion includes two main subtopics. They are theoretical
description and theoretical framework.
A. Theoretical Description
In this part, the writer concerns with the theories which are used to the accomplishment of this study. This part is divided into seven parts. They are the
theory of Educational Research and Development RD, Instructional Design Model, Language Testing, Reading Skill, Designing Multiple-choice Items, Web-
based Test, and Application Software.
1. Educational Research and Development RD
According to Borg and Gall 1983: 771, Educational Research and Development RD is a process used to develop and to validate educational
products and it consists of a cycle in which a version of the product is developed, field-tested, and revised on the basis of field-test data. The goal of Educational
Research and Development methodology is to discover new knowledge through the basic research or to answer specific questions about practical problems
through applied research Borg and Gall, 1983:772. In particular, this methodology unites the gap between research and practice by conducting research
13 and using the result to build test products. In Educational Research and
Development, the ten steps used to develop mini-courses are described as follows: a.
Research and Information Collecting This step includes review of literature, classroom observations, and preparation
of report of state of the art Borg and Gall, 1983: 775. Literature review is conducted to collect information that sustain on the design planning. To
support the information, classroom observation is conducted to gain information about classroom activity and situation.
b. Planning
It includes defining skills, starting objectives, determining course sequence, and small scale feasibility testing Borg and Gall, 1983: 775. The focus on this
step is determining the skill being improved by considering the objectives of the study that have to be achieved by the product.
c. Developing Preliminary Form of Product
This step includes preparation of instructional materials, handbooks, and evaluation devices Borg and Gall, 1983: 775. Questionnaire and interview
list, as evaluation devices, are designed to obtain information and feedback of the preliminary form of the product. According to Borg and Gall 1983: 781,
the procedure of developing the product will differ depending on the nature of the product.
d. Preliminary Field Testing
In this step, the product is applied in 1 to 3 schools, using 6 to 12 subjects. Besides, the designer gathers data through interview, observation, and
14 questionnaire then analyzes the data collected Borg and Gall, 1983: 775. This
step is suggested to test the feasibility of the product before it is implemented. e.
Main Product Revision In this step, the designer revises the product as suggested by the Preliminary
Field Test results Borg and Gall, 1983: 775. The data obtained from interview and questionnaire, are analyzed to improve the product.
f. Main Field Testing
In this step, the revised product is conducted in 5 to 15 schools with 30 to 100 subjects. The data on subjects’ pre-course and post-course performance are
collected and analyzed in the form of qualitative data. Then, the results are evaluated with respect to course objectives and are compared with control
group data, when appropriate Borg and Gall, 1983: 775. g.
Operational Product Revision The designer revises the product as suggested by Main Field Test results Borg
and Gall, 1983: 775. h.
Operational Field Testing This step has a purpose to determine whether this product is completely ready
to be used at schools or not. In this step, the designer conducts the product in 10 to 30 schools involving 40 to 200 subjects Borg and Gall, 1983: 775. The
product has to be tested and revised completely in every part by conducting interview, observation, and questionnaire. The collected data should be
analyzed to determine whether the product is complete.
15 i.
Final Product Revision This step is the final revision of the product as suggested by Operational Field
Test result. The final version for the complete package of product is carried out after the data from the operational field test have been analyzed Borg and
Gall, 1983: 786. j.
Dissemination and Implementation This last step is the technique to adjust the cost of the product developing
process by operating effective dissemination and implementation the product to intended users Borg and Gall, 1983: 786. The designer reports on product at
professional meetings and in journals; works with publisher who assumes commercial distribution; and monitors distribution to provide quality control.
In general, the Education Research and Design RD cycle consists of studying research findings pertinent to the product to be developed, developing
the product based on those findings, field testing it in the setting where it will be eventually, and revising it to correct the deficiencies found in the field stage.
There is one step called product selection that should be applied before the Educational RD process. It is necessary to describe as specifically as possible
the educational product that is to be developed Borg and Gall, 1983: 776. The description of product selection should include: 1 an overall narrative
description of the proposed product, 2 a tentative outline of what the product will include and how it will be used, and the most important 3 a specific
statement of the objectives of the product.
16 The criteria for product selection used include the following:
1 Does the proposed product meet an important educational need?
2 Is the state of the art sufficiently advanced so that there is a reasonable
probability that a successful product can be built? 3
Are personnel available who have the skills, knowledge, and experience necessary to build this product?
4 Can the product be developed within a reasonable time?
This planning provides the foundation upon which later revisions are built.
2. Instructional Design Model
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