The highly-motivated student`s lived experience of communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation.

(1)

xv ABSTRACT

Fika Apriliana. 2016. The Highly-Motivated Students’ Lived Experience of Communication Apprehension and Fear of Negative Evaluation. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

A series of research undertaken have revealed some interesting aspects regarding the importance of motivation and the existence of Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA) which can hinder students to learn foreign languages. Previous research has been done showing that the number of students who experience FLA is amazing. Students with high motivation are not the exception. In the foreign language learning, it is highly likely that they also experience FLA. It is interesting to find out how students who are closely associated with language achievement and considered as successful learners experience FLA handle it and give meaning to it. In this study, the type of FLA was delimited into Communication Apprehension (CA) and Fear of Negative Evaluation (FNE) since they are factors contributing to students’ oral communication in the classroom. Therefore, this study was conducted to find the scientific truth of the highly-motivated students’ lived experience of CA and FNE specifically by describing and interpreting their lived experience of CA and FNE.

This study was a hermeneutic phenomenological study since it was an interpretive study of the highly-motivated students’ lived experience of CA and FNE. The data gathered for completing the study was in the form of texts including anecdotes. The texts represented the participants’ lived experience and their reflection on their experience. The texts were obtained from two second-year ELESP students through in-depth interviews. The texts were interpreted thematically by using van Manen’s (1990) approach named selective reading approach. The trustworthiness of the study was supported by the suitability of the participants’ criteria with the criteria set for the study, the validity of the instruments and member checking.

The results of my study were the description of the participants’ stories and the interpretation of their lived experience. Four major themes appeared to best reflect the highly-motivated students’ lived experience of CA and FNE. The four major themes were: (1) struggle with communication apprehension (CA), (2) struggle with fear of negative evaluation (FNE), (3) reasons for choosing the coping strategies and (4) impacts of the experience. Both participants experienced CA as well as FNE when they had to speak in front of the class. Classroom activities, participants’ personal traits and participants’ beliefs were found to be factors causing their CA, while the external factors such as the lecturers and classmates were found to be factors causing their FNE. The situations were indeed complex phenomena. It included the participants' physical, psychological, and behavioral aspects. Experiencing CA and FNE meant that the participants’ self-confidence was challenged and that the participants experienced a sense of being blocked by their negative thoughts of feelings of incompetence, by fear of making mistakes and by fear of negatively evaluated by the lecturer and the classmates. The participants made efforts to turn away from physical symptoms by taking a

(2)

xvi

deep breath. They also made effort to turn their negative thoughts into the positive ones by believing their own competence. Further, one participant made preparations before her presentation. Interestingly, both participants tried to ignore the thought that they would be negatively evaluated by their classmates. Motivation seemed to have important roles in helping the participants cope with CA and FNE in that their reasons of chosing coping strategies were related to their motivation. About the impacts of the experience, the experience brought positive impacts to one participant. For the other participant, the experience brought a positive impact as well as a negative impact.

This study provided scientific, practical and humanistic benefits. Scientifically, the findings of the study contributed to the body of knowledge in English Language Studies (ELS). Practically, the findings of the study implied that educators and students should be aware of the existence of CA and FNE in teaching and learning process. Thus, educators were expected to help students cope with anxiety-provoking situations for example by helping students recognize their beliefs, being aware of factors related to educators that could trigger students’ FNE, reassuring that their students had learning goals and giving extrinsic reward if it was necessary. Humanistically, the study presented findings that were expected to promote empathic understanding of participants’ lived experience of CA and FNE. Moreover, this understanding was expected to lead to self-actualization which occurs when people realize their own maximum potential and capabilities.

Keywords: lived experience, motivation, foreign language anxiety, communication apprehension, fear of negative evaluation

(3)

xvii ABSTRAK

Fika Apriliana. 2016. Pengalaman Hidup Mahasiswa dengan Motivasi Tinggi dalam Menghadapi Kecemasan Berkomunikasi dan Kecemasan terhadap Evaluasi Negatif. Yogyakarta: Program Kajian Bahasa Inggris, Universitas Sanata Dharma.

Penelitian-penelitian yang telah dilakukan menunjukkan beberapa aspek menarik berkaitan dengan pentingnya motivasi and keberadaan kecemasan berbahasa asing yang dapat mengganggu mahasiswa dalam belajar bahasa asing. Penelitian-penelitian yang telah dilakukan sebelumnya menunjukkan bahwa jumlah mahasiswa yang mengalami kecemasan dalam berbahasa asing sangatlah menakjubkan. Mahasiswa yang mempunyai motivasi tinggi tidak luput dari hal ini. Di dalam kelas bahasa asing, mereka juga cenderung mengalami kecemasan dalam berbahasa asing. Akan sangat menarik jika dapat mengetahui bagaimana mereka mengalami, menghadapi dan memaknai kecemasan mereka. Dalam penelitian ini, tipe kecemasan berbahasa asing hanya difokuskan pada kecemasan dalam berkomunikasi dan kecemasan terhadap evaluasi negatif karena tipe-tipe kecemasan tersebut adalah tipe-tipe kecemasan yang erat kaitannya dengan komunikasi lisan di dalam kelas. Untuk itu penelitian ini dilakukan untuk menemukan kebenaran saintifik tentang pengalaman hidup mahasiswa dengan motivasi tinggi dalam menghadapi kecemasan berbahasa asing khususnya dengan mendeskripsikan dan menginterpretasikan pengalaman hidup mereka dalam menghadapi kecemasan berbahasa asing.

Penelitian ini merupakan penelitian fenomenologi hermeneutika karena penelitian ini merupakan penelitian interpretasi tentang pengalaman hidup mahasiswa dengan motivasi tinggi dalam menghadapi kecemasan dalam berkomunikasi dan kecemasan terhadap evaluasi negatif. Data didapatkan dalam bentuk teks termasuk anekdot. Teks merepresentasikan pengalaman partisipan dan refleksi mereka terhadap pengalaman yang telah mereka lalui. Partisipan merupakan dua mahasiswa Program Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma. Teks didapat melalui wawancara mendalam antara peneliti dan partisipan. Selanjutnya teks diinterpretasikan dengan menggunakan analisa yang berfokus pada tema. Data di dalam penelitian ini dapat diyakini kebenarannya karena didukung oleh kecocokan partisipan dengan kriteria penelitian, validitas instrumen penelitian dan konfirmasi ulang kepada partisipan.

Hasil dari penelitian ini adalah deskripsi tentang pengalaman hidup para partisipan dan interpretasi pengalaman hidup mereka. Empat tema utama yang muncul adalah: (1) perjuangan menghadapi kecemasan dalam berkomunikasi, (2) perjuangan dalam menghadapi kecemasan terhadap penelitian negatif, (3) alasan-alasan di balik pemilihan strategi untuk menghadapi kecemasan-kecemasan tersebut dan (4) dampak pengalaman hidup partisipan kepada partisipan itu sendiri. Masing-masing partisipan mengalami kecemasan dalam berkomunikasi dan kecemasan terhadap evaluasi negatif saat masing-masing dari mereka harus berbicara di depan kelas. Aktivitas kelas, sifat-sifat pribadi partisipan dan keyakinan mereka dalam pembelajaran bahasa asing merupakan faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan kecemasan dalam berkomunikasi. Keberadaan dosen dan

(4)

xviii

teman kelas merupakan faktor-faktor yang menyebabkan kecemasan terhadap evaluasi negatif. Situasi yang dihadapi mereka sangatlah kompleks. Mereka merasakan gejala fisik, gejala psikologis dan gejala yang berhubungan dengan perilaku. Mereka merasa kepercayaan mereka diuji. Mereka melihat pengalaman tersebut sebagai pengalaman di mana mereka merasa kesulitan karena terhalang oleh perasaan takut membuat kesalahan dan pikiran negatif mereka terutama pikiran negatif bahwa mereka tidak mampu untuk mengatasi keadaan pada saat itu. Mereka menarik nafas dan menghilangkan pikiran negatif dengan cara berpikir positif bahwa mereka mampu mengatasi situasi pada saat itu. Satu partisipan melakukan persiapan sebelum presentasi. Untuk mengatasi kecemasan terhadap evaluasi negatif oleh teman kelas, para partisipan berusaha untuk mengabaikan pikiran bahwa mereka akan dievaluasi negatif oleh teman kelas. Motivasi nampaknya memiliki peran penting dalam membantu para partisipan dalam mengatasi kecemasan berkomunikasi dan kecemasan terhadap evaluasi negatif. Hal tersebut terlihat dari alasan-alasan mereka dalam memilih strategi untuk mengatasi kecemasan mereka. Pengalaman-pengalaman yang dialami membawa dampak positif terhadap salah satu partisipan sedangkan terhadap partisipan lainnya membawa dampak positif sekaligus dampak negatif.

Hasil dari penelitian ini diharapkan mampu memberikan keuntungan saintifik, praktis dan humanistik. Secara saintifik, hasil penelitian ini memberikan kontribusi terhadap ilmu pengetahuan di dalam lingkup Kajian Bahasa Inggris. Dalam prakteknya, hasil dari penelitian ini mengindikasikan bahwa pendidik dan mahasiswa seharusnya sadar akan adanya kecemasan berkomunikasi dan kecemasan terhadap penilaian negatif di dalam proses belajar mengajar. Selanjutnya, pendidik diharapkan mampu membantu mahasiswa dalam mengatasi hal-hal tersebut misalnya dengan cara membantu mahasiswa untuk menyadari keyakinan dalam belajar bahasa Inggris, menyadari faktor-faktor yang berasal dari pendidik yang mampu menyebabkan kecemasan mahasiswa, memastikan bahwa setiap mahasiswa memiliki tujuan dalam belajar dan memberikan penghargaan jika dibutuhkan. Secara humanistik, hasil dari penelitian ini diharapkan mampu menciptakan pemahaman empati dan selanjutnya pemahaman empati ini diharapkan dapat mengarah pada aktualisasi diri.

Kata kunci: pengalaman hidup, motivasi, kecemasan berbahasa asing, kecemasan dalam berkomunikasi, kecemasan terhadap evaluasi negatif

(5)

THE HIGHLY-MOTIVATED STUDENTS’ LIVED EXPERIENCE OF COMMUNICATION APPREHENSION AND FEAR OF NEGATIVE

EVALUATION

A Thesis Presented to

The Graduate Program in English Language Studies in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

for the Degree of

Magister Humaniora (M.Hum) in

English Language Studies

by Fika Apriliana

146332006

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY YOGYAKARTA

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

First and foremost, I give glory and honor to Almighty God for His blessings, wisdom and guidance for enabling me to complete my master thesis and my study in ELS.

I would like to express my sincere gratitude and deep appreciation to my thesis advisor, F.X. Mukarto, Ph.D., for his helpful, warm encouragement as well as his insightful suggestions on my work from the beginning to the end of my thesis. I would like to thank my thesis reviewers who are also my thesis examiners, Dr. J. Bismoko, Dr. E. Sunarto, M.Hum and Dr. B.B. Dwijatmoko., M.A., for their invaluable knowledge and suggestions to improve my thesis. I would like to thank Paulus Kuswandono, Ph.D., the head of ELESP, for the permission to obtain the data from ELESP students. I would also thank all lecturers in ELS for the invaluable knowledge that they shared through teaching and learning process.

I would like to thank my beloved parents, my brother and my sisters whose love and encouragement keep me warm and lead me to achieve this dream. To my beloved fiancé, Yohanus Fhani Purnama Adi, you have been a source of inspiration, and the completion of this degree would not have been achieved without your love, patience and support. I am also thankful to all my colleagues in ELS especially batch 2014 for their togetherness and inspiration.

The completion of my thesis would not have been possible without the cooperation from my participants, Venita and Petra (pseudonym). I am grateful to them for their willingness to share their memorable and interesting experiences. Finally, I express sincere gratitude to others whose names are not mentioned here.

(11)

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ...i

APPROVAL PAGE ...ii

DEFENSE APPROVAL PAGE ...iii

STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY ...iv

LEMBAR PERNYATAAN PERSETUJUAN PUBLIKASI...v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...vii

LIST OF TABLES ...xi

LIST OF FIGURES ...xii

LIST OF APPENDICES ...xiii

LIST OF ABBREVIATION ...xiv

ABSTRACT ...xv

ABSTRAK ...xvii

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION ...1

A.Background of the Study ...1

B.Problem Delimitation ...5

C.Research Formulation ...6

D.Research Goal ...7

E. Research Benefits ...7

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW ...9

A.Theoretical Review ...9

(12)

viii

a. Definition of Motivation ...10

b. Types of Motivation ...12

c. Highly-Motivated Students ...16

2. Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA) ...16

a. Definition of FLA ...17

b. Types of FLA ...18

1) Communication Apprehension ...18

2) Fear of Negative Evaluation ...19

c. Causes of FLA ...20

1) Personal and Interpersonal Issues ...21

2) Learner’s Beliefs about Language Learning ...22

3) Teacher’s Beliefs about Language Learning ...22

4) Classroom Characteristics ...23

5) Classmates ...24

d. Manifestation of FLA ...24

e. Students’ Strategies to Cope with FLA ...25

f. Effects of FLA ...27

3. Relationship between Motivation and FLA ...27

4. Lived Experience ...29

B.Framework of Pre-Understanding ...35

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY ...39

A.Research Method ...39

B.Nature and Source of Data ...40

(13)

1. Questionnaire for Recruiting Participants ...41

2. Interview for Investigating Participants’ Lived Experience ...42

D.Data Collection ...45

E. Data Analysis ...47

1. Data Analysis for Questionnaire ...47

2. Text Description and Interpretation for In-Depth Interview ...48

F. Trustworthiness ...51

CHAPTER IV: DESCRIPTION AND INTERPRETATION...53

A.Description ...53

1. Venita’s Story ...54

2. Petra’s Story ...57

B.Interpretation ...60

1. Struggle with Communication Apprehension (CA) ...60

a. Causes of CA ...60

1) Classroom Activities ...61

2) Personal Traits ...63

3) Beliefs about Language Learning ...64

b. Manifestation of CA ...65

1) Physical, Psychological and Behavioral Symptoms ...65

2) Feeling of Incompetence ...67

3) Perfectionism ...68

c. Strategies to Cope with CA ...69

1) Relaxation ...70

(14)

3) Preparation ...71

2. Struggle with Fear of Negative Evaluation (FNE) ...72

a. Causes of FNE ...72

1) Lecturer’s Characteristics ...72

2) Classmates’ Characteristics ...73

b. Manifestation of FNE ...74

1) Physical Symptom ...74

2) Psychological Symptoms ...74

c. Strategies to Cope with FNE ...75

1) Relaxation ...75

2) Positive Thinking ...75

3) Ignoring ...75

3. Reasons for Choosing the Coping Strategies ...76

4. Impacts of the Experience ...78

CHAPTER V: CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...81

A.Conclusions ...81

B.Implications ...85

C.Recommendations ...86

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...88

(15)

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1. List of Questions as the Interview Guideline ... 43 Table 3.2. Table for Positive and Negative Statements of Motivation, CA and

FNE ... 47 Table 3.3. Interpretation of Mean Score Results... 48

(16)

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1. Construct of the Study ... 38 Figure 3.1. Data Collection and Data Analysis ... 50

(17)

xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1. Adapted Questionnaire ...96

Appendix 2. Invitation for Interview ...99

Appendix 3. Surat Permohonan Ijin Penelitian ...100

Appendix 4. Questionnaire (Venita) ...101

Appendix 5. Questionnaire (Petra) ...103

Appendix 6. Consent Form (Venita) ...105

Appendix 7. Consent Form (Petra) ...106

Appendix 8. In-Depth Interview Transcript 1 (Venita) ...107

Appendix 9. In-Depth Interview Transcript 2 (Venita) ...118

Appendix 10. In-Depth Interview Transcript 3 (Venita) ...121

Appendix 11. In-Depth Interview Transcript 1 (Petra) ...123

Appendix 12. In-Depth Interview Transcript 2 (Petra) ...132

(18)

xiv

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

CA : Communication Apprehension EM : Extrinsic Motivation

ELS : English Language Studies

FL : Foreign Language

FLA : Foreign Language Anxiety

FLCAS : Foreign Language Learning Anxiety Scale FNE : Fear of Negative Evaluation

IM : Intrinsic Motivation INTRVW : Interview

(19)

xv ABSTRACT

Fika Apriliana. 2016. The Highly-Motivated Students’ Lived Experience of Communication Apprehension and Fear of Negative Evaluation. Yogyakarta: The Graduate Program in English Language Studies, Sanata Dharma University.

(20)

xvi

Keywords: lived experience, motivation, foreign language anxiety, communication apprehension, fear of negative evaluation

(21)

xvii ABSTRAK

(22)

xviii

Kata kunci: pengalaman hidup, motivasi, kecemasan berbahasa asing, kecemasan dalam berkomunikasi, kecemasan terhadap evaluasi negatif

(23)

1 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This introductory chapter consists of background of the study, problem delimitation, problem formulation, research goal and research benefits. The background section contains the underlying information of the research which shows the readers the importance of the issues under study. The scope of the study should be delimited and therefore is stated in the problem delimitation. The research question which is the focus of this research is formulated and can be found in the problem formulation section. The next section is research goal which is closely related to the research question. In the end of this chapter, the research benefits section describes the scientific and practical benefits of the study.

A. Background of the Study

I remember one day in the middle of a course that I took in my graduate study, my lecturer asked a question, “What is the difference between learning and acquisition?” What happened was none of the students answered. That situation perhaps would make my lecturer think, “Does the silence mean they do not have any idea, does the silence mean they are thinking or does the silence actually show the fights in the students’ minds whether to give answer or not?” I–as one of the students in that class–would say that it was about the fight in mind. I knew the concept and wanted to answer, but I hesitated. This fight happened in my mind, “Is my answer correct? What will my lecturer and other friends think if I give incorrect answer?” I was anxious of being negatively evaluated by my lecturer and friends. Finally, I just kept my mouth closed and did not give the answer.

(24)

This fight in mind happened not in one course only. In another course, my lecturer asked me and my friends to actively participate in every group discussion. Moreover, in this course, my lecturer employed participation grade. He would give additional grades for the students who shared their ideas. One day, the discussion was on what we would do if our beliefs as a teacher were different with the beliefs of institution where we worked. I thought about the answer then formulated good statements to represent my ideas. Again and again, I was a little bit hesitant to speak out my ideas. I was not confident enough and afraid of what others would think of my ideas. My heart beat faster, but then I was eager for participating in the group discussions because of the grade I would get. I took a deep breath, then finally I raised my hand and spoke out my ideas.

My struggles above were two-real examples of situations when I experienced language anxiety. In my first story, my anxiety caused me to remain silent in the class. I was failed in handling my anxiety. However, sometimes like in my second story, I could cope with my anxiety successfully. At that time, I was motivated by the grade I could get. I am quite sure that these kinds of struggle not only happened to me but also happened to the most students. Unfortunately, Oxford (1999) states the idea that my first reaction–being silent or giving up–is more frequent than my second reaction found in mostly students when they experienced language anxiety.

Anxiety can be simply defined as “worrying or fear feeling.” Many people feel nervous when they are speaking because they may feel anxious inside their hearts. Anxiety is often viewed as a possible stumbling block to the language learning process. Some students may be reluctant to deliver their opinion in

(25)

classroom because they feel worry. Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986, p. 124) define anxiety as “the subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness and worry associated with the arousal of the nervous system.” A study from Worde (1998) in Zheng (2008) showed that one third to a half of students examined were reported to experience high levels of language anxiety. It shows that the number of students who report that they are anxious language learners is amazing. In addition, according to McCroskey (1984), even at higher levels of proficiency, many students may experience some level of fear and anxiety when asked to communicate, especially in public. According to Horwitz et al. (1986, p. 126), in the foreign language context, “anxiety centers on the two basic task requirements: listening and speaking, and difficulty in speaking in class is probably the most frequently cited concern of the anxious foreign language students.” Some researchers have revealed that anxiety can impede foreign language production and achievement (Horwitz et al., 1986; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991, 1994). Specifically, MacIntyre & Gardner (1991, p. 86) claim that “language anxiety is experienced by learners of both foreign and second language and causes potential problem as it can interfere with the acquisition, retention and production of the new language.”

Investigating further into my second experience, I could find another variable which was motivation in my process of making the decision. At that time, I was motivated by the participation grade employed by my lecturer. Grade actually was also one form of motivation. Richard (1994, p. 4) states that “motivation is concerned with one’s reasons for learning the language, the strategies used to achieve these goals, the effort put into learning and one’s ability

(26)

to sustain that effort.” Motivation has frequently been reported to be the most critical factor for success in the language learning process. Motivation has been widely accepted by teachers and researchers as one of the key factors influencing the success of language learning (Ely, 1986; Dornyei, 1994; Williams & Burden, 1997 in Li & Pan, 2005). Brown (2007) states that motivation is a star player in the cast of characters connected to language learning around the world. It plays an important role of success and failure.

According to the Affective Filter hypothesis proposed by Krashen (1987), both motivation and anxiety are important affective variables that may function as affective filter and influence comprehensible input in the process of acquiring a language. Affective factors are defined as “those that deal with the emotional response and motivations of the learner” (Scovel, 1978 in Tanveer, 2007). It is well established that second or foreign language learning is often associated with affective factors, among which the constructs of anxiety and motivation have been recognized as important predictors of second or foreign language achievement. Learning more about the affective factors that may influence the process of language acquisition and lead to ineffectual learning is crucial to prevent an atmosphere that not only frustrates the teachers, but also causes anxiety for students.

Numerous empirical studies have focused on the relationship between motivation and anxiety. The researchers have found language anxiety is negatively related to language motivation (Gardner et al., 1987; Hashimoto, 2002; Tsai & Chang, 2013; Liu & Cheng, 2014; Tahernezhad, Behjat & Kargar, 2014). Motivation was also shown to be served as a significant predictor of learner

(27)

anxiety. Clement, Dornyei and Noels (1994) found that learners who are more motivated to learn are usually less anxious learners who have better previous experiences, who evaluate their own proficiency more highly, and who consider the learning tasks as less difficult. According to Noels, Clement and Pelletier (2001), the more learners feel amotivated, the less effort they will expand and the more anxiety they will feel. However, it should not be the end of the investigation. The important point is to explore the role of these affective filters altogether in teaching and learning process.

As a language learner who had experienced anxious feelings aroused by language learning situations and as a future teacher of English, I had always been interested in exploring the role of affective factors in general and of motivation and anxiety in particular. In this study, I went deeper exploring the motivated students’ lived experience of anxiety and the meaning of the experience to them. To the best of my knowledge, no published study had been yet conducted to explore the issue. Since it was the study of lived experience, the study was a phenomenological study in nature.

B. Problem Delimitation

Learning a foreign language required the students’ motivation to be successful. It was worth noticing that students’ levels of motivation varied between one and another. In my study, I focused on students who are highly motivated since they were strongly related to high achievement, and therefore could be considered as successful students. Exploring their lived experience of language anxiety was a beneficial thing to do since they might provide useful

(28)

self-6

reflection and guideline for other students who had similar problem and still found out the best way to be successful in language learning.

Considering that the study was conducted in the foreign language context, I specified the kind of anxiety into what is so-called Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA). Horwitz et al. (1986, p. 128) define FLA as “a distinct set of beliefs, perceptions, and feelings in response to foreign language learning in the classroom and not merely a composite of other anxieties.” FLA is unique since it happened in foreign language classroom which requires the learners to communicate or use a language which they have not mastered perfectly (Keramida, 2009).

Furthermore, Horwitz et al. (1986) and Cubukcu (2007) identify three main types of FLA. The three types are communication apprehension (CA), test anxiety (TA) and fear of negative evaluation (FNE). Cubukcu (2007, p. 128) defines CA as “a type of shyness characterized by fear of and anxiety about communicating with people”. TA refers to “a type of performance anxiety stemming from a fear of failure” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 127). FNE is defined as “apprehension about others’ evaluations, avoidance of evaluative situations and the expectation that others will evaluate them negatively” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128). In this study, I focused on CA and FNE since they are factors influencing to students’ oral communication in the classroom.

C. Problem Formulation

Considering the importance of the issue being studied, this study attempted to answer the following research questions:

(29)

What is the highly-motivated students’ lived experience of communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation?

D. Research Goal

The research goal of this study was closely related to the research question of this study. By conducting this study, I aimed at finding the scientific truth of the highly-motivated students’ lived experience of communication apprehension (CA) and fear of negative evaluation (FNE) specifically by describing and interpreting their lived experience of CA and FNE.

E. Research Benefits

My study of the highly-motivated students’ lived experience of CA and FNE was expected to provide scientific, practical and humanistic benefits. Scientifically, the description and interpretation of the result would contribute to the body of knowledge in English Language Studies (ELS). The scientific contribution would lead to practical benefits which was related to efficiency or productivity.

Practically, the finding of this study might help English-medium institution such as ELS to understand the individual difference, to understand the psychological process of learning foreign language and to come up with effective teaching methods to control students’ affective filter. Therefore, these practical benefits would promote equity in the classroom. Learning equity was highly needed to ensure that language learners got a fair opportunity at learning.

Humanistically, the study presented findings that promoted empathic understanding of the participants’ lived experience of CA and FNE. This is what

(30)

phenomenological psychology is about–“rich description of people’s experiences, so that we can understand them in new, subtle and different ways and then use this new knowledge to make a difference to the lived world of ourselves and others” (Langdridge, 2007, p. 9). This understanding was expected to lead to self-actualization which occurs when people realize their own maximum potential and capabilities.

(31)

9 CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter will be divided into two sections. The first section is the theoretical review which will provide a comprehensive knowledge of the field of this study. By reviewing the related theories, the construct map can be theoretically generated. The construct map serves as the basis for the framework of pre-understanding which will be provided in the second section of this chapter. The framework of pre-understanding functions as the rationale to predict the relationships among variables of this study and to describe this study in the whole picture.

A. Theoretical Review

This section presents my review of published information of some relevant theories and previous studies related to the topic of my study. In this section, I review the theories and previous studies’ findings of: (1) motivation, (2) foreign language anxiety (FLA) including communication apprehension (CA) and fear of negative evaluation (FNE), (3) relationship between motivation and FLA and (4) lived experience.

1. Motivation

In this section, I review the theories and previous studies’ findings of motivation. This section is divided into 3 smaller sections: (a) definition of motivation, (b) types of motivation and (c) highly-motivated students.

(32)

10 a. Definition of Motivation

“Motivation is concerned with one’s reasons for learning the language, the strategies used to achieve these goals, the effort put into learning and one’s ability to sustain that effort” (Richards, 1994, p. 4). Motivation has frequently been reported to be the most critical factor for success in the language learning process. Motivation has been widely accepted by teachers and researchers as one of the key factors influencing the success of language learning (Ely, 1986; Dornyei, 1994; Williams & Burden, 1997 in Li & Pan, 2005). Brown (2007) states that motivation is a star player in the cast of characters connected to language learning around the world. It plays an important role of success and failure.

Motivation helps students get started. Sometimes, it will be hard for students to start learning new knowledge and new skills of language through new subjects in a new semester. Many questions will appear in students’ mind. Motivation helps students get started because motivation involves the student’s reason for attempting to acquire the language (Schumann, 1986). Therefore, realizing the reason can help students to set the goal and plan strategies to achieve the goal.

Motivation helps students keep moving in language learning process. Since motivated students have an effort put into learning and also have ability to sustain that effort, the students can face difficulties and challenges in the process of learning. Moreover, Hedge (2000, p. 23) emphasizes that “motivation is crucial in the classroom, whether learners arrive with it or whether they acquire it through classroom experience.” Motivation escorts the process of learning.

Motivation makes students do more than necessary. Motivation leads students to have an effort to achieve the goals, consciously or unconsciously

(33)

students will do better and more than necessary. The students will explore and use all their knowledge and skills in language learning process. Reece and Walker (1997) express that a less capable student who is highly motivated can achieve a greater success than the more intelligent student who is not well motivated.

Motivation makes the journey fun. Students who do not have motivation might think that the journey to succeed is long and difficult. Differently, students who are motivated will see the long journey as an enjoyable travel. Donald (2008) argues that motivation enables students to endure such difficult times. A motivated individual will enjoy learning the language and will strive to learn the language (Gardner, 1985).

In language learning, “motivation determines the extent of active, personal involvement in language learning” (Oxford & Shearin, 1994, p. 121). Motivation leads the students to be self-directed. A highly-motivated student begins to want a greater responsibility for their own learning. “Self-directed students gradually gain greater involvement and proficiency” (Oxford, 1990, p. 10).

Motivation has a strong effect on students’ achievement in numerous studies. Bank and Finlapson (1980) concluded that successful students were found to have significantly higher motivation for achievement than unsuccessful students did. Clement, Dornyei and Noels (1994) revealed that achievement in English language of Hungarian students was significantly related to motivational indices. Johnson (1996) found that academic achievement was highly correlated with students’ motivation. A quantitative study done by Sikhwari (2007) at the University of Venda in South Africa, suggested that highly motivated students tried to achieve academic success through attending classes regularly and

(34)

participating in class discussions, which resulted in their getting higher marks in tests and examination.

b. Types of Motivation

Harmer (1998) mentions that motivation can be separated into two main types: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation are two major types with which college students are engaged in the process of learning language. Intrinsic motivation basically comes from the students themselves such as their own goals and the needs to learn (e.g. I have direction and goals in learning English, I want my study provides me with opportunities to develop my knowledge and skills in English). If you are motivated intrinsically, it means that you are doing something because you want to do it or because you make your own choice to do it. Deci and Ryan (2000, p. 56) state that “intrinsic motivation is defined as the doing of an activity for inherent satisfactions rather than for some separable consequences.” Dev (1997) views that student who are intrinsically motivated will not need any type of reward or incentive to complete a task. This type of student is more likely to complete the chosen task and triggered by the challenging nature of an activity.

While extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the students such as parents, environment and class condition. “Extrinsic motivation is a construct that pertains whenever an activity is done in order to attain some separable outcome” (Deci & Ryan, 2000, p. 60). Extrinsic motivation thus contrast with intrinsic motivation. For students, extrinsic motivation variable is the sum of a recognition, grades, and competition in learning (Wigfield, 1997). As suggested by Best, Rulison, Davidson and Welsh (2008), grade was regarded as tangible reward,

(35)

while good academic reputation, praise and recognition from others were regarded as intangible reward.

Ormrod (2008) says that both types of motivation may not have exactly the same effect on student learning and performance at the college level. Deci and Ryan (1985) claim that learners who are intrinsically motivated rather than extrinsically motivated are likely to become more successful and effective learners. Students who are intrinsically motivated to learn are still believed to be more persistent in language learning, and this persistence contributes to students’ achievement. According to Ushioda (1996), students who are intrinsically motivated can experience greater pleasure and emotional involvement because the rewards generated from intrinsic motivation are usually positive feelings such as enjoyment, pleasure, satisfaction, and self-indulgence and students can be always motivated by those internal rewards from the learning itself to persist learning. While for students who are extrinsically motivated, they “may work efficiently in the short term in response to external rewards and incentives, but their motivation is unlikely to sustain itself autonomously if the learning experience does not generate internal or intrinsic rewards” (ibid, p. 22). Those students who work for extrinsic rewards are comparatively passive because if the external reinforcement is not available, they have no reason to do it and they may remain stagnant. Even, these students may give up learning once the external pressure no longer exists (Noels, Clement & Pelletier, 2001).

The key of extrinsic motivation is a reward, which can either be tangible or intangible. For example, if students excel, they will attain a good academic reputation, receive praise and recognition from their significant others which are

(36)

regarded as intangible rewards. Students who are perceived as having a good academic reputation may often be asked for academic help and are associated with students who excel (Gest et al., 2008). Deci and Ryan (1985) found that using rewards in an academic setting resulted in a significant improvement in students’ motivational levels. Moneta and Spada (2009) suggest that individuals who are extrinsically motivated by an expected reward increase their effort to complete the task and earn an incentive.

Besides the controversy of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, Lumsden and Linda (1994) investigated that passion to learn seemed to shrink as children grew. As children grow, learning sometimes becomes compulsion than pleasure. The similar idea is revealed by Goldberg (1994) in Broussard (2002), who points out that an intrinsic orientation toward education switches to a more extrinsic orientation as children increase in age. On the contrary, Zemke and Zemke (1988) argue that there is transition from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation in the college classroom. The students need to come to class to learn because learning is intrinsically motivating, rewarding, exciting and of real benefit to the students. Research on adult learners indicated that learners are most motivated when they see relevance to their learning, engage in the learning process and feel that they can meet their interests and needs (ibid).

It should be noted that some studies have found significant relationship between specific types of motivation and academic achievement. Intrinsic motivation was found to have a significant effect on students learning and performance in an empirical study (Deci et al., 2004). Several studies have shown positive correlations between intrinsic motivation and academic achievement (e.g.

(37)

Gottfried, 1985, 1990; Harter & Connell, 1984; Henderlong & Lepper, 1997; Lloyd & Barenblatt, 1984). Afzal, Ali, Khan and Hamid (2010) found that students who were intrinsically motivated performed much better academically than students who were extrinsically motivated. Extrinsically motivated students might perform very well in one semester or quiz to achieve a certain reward or goal and then next semester might show poor performance because the reward did not exist anymore. Their performance did not remain constant as a result. While, intrinsically motivated students were truly interested in learning and in achieving high goals. Their overall performance was consistent. On the other hand, recent research conducted to with college-student populations revealed that students who had high extrinsic motivation had positive achievement (Barron & Harrackiewicz, 2001; Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Harackiewicz, Barron, Pintrich, Elliot, & Trash, 2002 in Lepper, Corpus & Iyengar, 2005). Students who were particularly focused on the extrinsic consequences of their behaviors did particularly well on objective indicators of performance.

A study conducted amongst students in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, found that factors leading to academic achievement occurred interactively (Dass-Brailsford, 2005). For example, family pressure might contribute to a decrease in students’ motivational levels. However, students who were highly intrinsically motivated might counteract these negative factors from their families (ibid, 2005). Muller and Louw (2004) assert that extrinsic factors, such as a supportive social environment can foster intrinsic motivation. Davis, Muller and Middleton (2006) state that intrinsic and extrinsic variables are likely to interact with each other to support an individual in reaching their desired targets.

(38)

16 c. Highly-Motivated Students

Previously, I have presented the definition of motivation by Richard (1994). Richard (1994, p. 4) states that “motivation is concerned with one’s reasons for learning the language, the strategies used to achieve these goals, the effort put into learning and one’s ability to sustain that effort.” From this definition, it can be inferred that highly-motivated students have their own reasons or goals in language learning, employ some strategies used to achieve their goals and put a big effort to achieve their goals.

A highly-motivated student wants a greater responsibility for their own learning (Oxford, 1990). Self-directed students gradually gain greater involvement and proficiency. Motivation has strong effect on students’ achievement in numerous studies. Bank and Finlapson (1980) concluded that successful students were found to have significantly higher motivation for achievement than unsuccessful students did. Gottfried (1985) explains that students who were reported to have high academic intrinsic motivation had significantly high school achievement. Also, some previous research on college-student populations uncovered that students who had high extrinsic motivation had positive achievement (Barron & Harrackiewicz, 2001; Elliot & McGregor, 2001; Harackiewicz, Barron, Pintrich, Elliot, & Trash, 2002 in Lepper, Corpus & Iyengar, 2005).

2. Foreign Language Anxiety (FLA)

In this section, I review the theories and previous studies’ findings of FLA. This section is divided into 6 smaller sections: (a) definition of FLA, (b) types of

(39)

FLA, (c) causes of FLA, (d) manifestation of FLA, (e) students’ strategies to cope with FLA and (f) effects of FLA.

a. Definition of FLA

Teachers and students generally feel that anxiety is a major obstacle to overcome in learning to speak another language. In order to understand FLA, it is important to first consider the definition of FLA. Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) were the first to treat FLA as a separate and distinct phenomenon particular to language learning. According to Horwitz et al. (1986, p. 128), FLA is “a distinct complex of self-perceptions, feelings and behaviors related to classroom learning arising from the uniqueness of the language learning process.”. In a similar vein, Oh (1992) in Wang (2005, p. 16) perceives FLA as a situation-specific anxiety students experience in the classroom, which is characterized by “negative self-centered thoughts, feelings of inadequacy, fear of failure, and emotional reactions.”

Batumlu and Erden (2007) in Worku (2008, p. 10) add that “FLA is different from all kinds of anxiety because it is a distinct complex of self-perceptions, feelings and behaviors related to language learning process.” Here, the students who feel anxious are caused by the foreign language learning process. Moreover, “foreign language learning process is seen as a unique process because learners are required to communicate or use a language which they have not mastered perfectly” (Keramida, 2009, p. 39). In other words, the worry and negative emotional reaction aroused when the students are learning or using a foreign language that they do not have full competence. For many learners, learning English as a foreign language can make them feel anxious and worried

(40)

because English is something new for them. They have to use or communicate using English that they have not mastered perfectly.

b. Types of FLA

Horwitz et al. (1986) identified three related performance anxieties. They are communication apprehension (CA), test anxiety (TA) and fear of negative evaluation (FNE), which are believed to “provide useful conceptual building blocks for a description of foreign language anxiety” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128). In the following part, I review two types of FLA used in this study.

1) Communication Apprehension (CA)

McCroskey (1977, p. 28) defines CA as “an individual’s level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons.” Meanwhile, Cubukcu (2007, p. 128) defines CA as “a type of shyness characterized by fear of and anxiety about communicating with people.” Horwitz et al. (1986, p. 127) state that “difficulty in speaking in dyads or groups (oral communication anxiety) or in public (“stage fright”) or in listening to or learning a spoken message (receiver anxiety) are all manifestation of CA.” Gregersen and Horwitz (2002, p. 562) elaborate more by saying

people whose typical CA is high tend to encounter even greater difficulty communicating in a foreign language class where they have little control of the communicative situation; there exists a disparity between learners’ mature thoughts and their immature foreign language proficiency, and their performance is constantly monitored.

Horwitz et al. (1986, p. 127) state that the inability to express oneself fully or to understand others not only lead to frustration and apprehension in typical apprehensive communicators but also make many otherwise talkative people become silent in a foreign language class.

(41)

A study by Nor and Normazla (2008) found that the participants of their study experienced the highest level of CA when participating in meetings, interpersonal communication and public speaking. Their study also revealed that the major causes of CA were the personality trait of the students and their inability to pronounce English words correctly. Likewise, Pappamihiel (2002) in her paper wrote that students who come in with fewer language skills tend to be more nervous and anxious about learning the English language. Therefore, anxiety is viewed as a possible stumbling block to the language learning process of these students. Another study conducted in Puerto Rico by Lucas (1984) revealed that only 115 students were found to experience CA when speaking using their mother tongue, Spanish. However, these students were found to display high CA (43%) when speaking in English. A similar study conducted by McCroskey (1984) in Japan found that three-fourths of the samples were classified as having high levels of CA in both Japanese and English. Finally, in a study conducted by Shameem and Siti (2006) in Tom et al. (2013), the researchers found that more than half of their subjects were afraid of using English due to poor proficiency in the language. They also found that the subjects had high levels of CA when using the language to communicate. Similar to Nor and Normazla’s (2008) study, they also discovered that one of the main factors causing CA was personality trait.

2) Fear of Negative Evaluation (FNE)

Fear of negative evaluation (FNE) is defined as “apprehension about others’ evaluations, avoidance of evaluative situations and the expectation that others will evaluate them negatively” (Horwitz et al., 1986, p. 128). From the definition of fear of negative evaluation, it can be concluded that many learners seem to be

(42)

sensitive when they are evaluated by others because they are afraid of having negative evaluations. Consequently, learners who are highly concerned about the impressions of others form them to behave in ways that minimize the possibility of negative evaluations (Gregersen & Horwitz, 2002). In foreign language classrooms, students with FNE tend to "sit passively in the classroom, withdrawing from classroom activities that could otherwise enhance their improvement of the language skills" or even "cutting class to avoid anxiety situations" (Aida, 1994, p. 157).

Young (1991) found that anxious learners thought their skills in language were weaker than their peers’ and they were looking down at them. A study from Hilleson (1996) showed that the awareness of performing badly in English seemed to indicate a loss of self-esteem. The students were aware that their performance was being evaluated by their peers and teachers, which made them very anxious in learning.

c. Causes of FLA

Research has indicated a number of ways that learning a foreign language can cause anxiety for language learners. Tallon (2008) comprehensively summarize three main sources of FLA. They are learner’s characteristics, teacher’s characteristics and classroom’s characteristics. In addition, classmates also act as the source of main source of FLA (Horwitz et al., 1986). Learner’s characteristics include personal and interpersonal issues and learner’s beliefs about language learning. Teacher’s characteristics include teacher’s beliefs about language teaching which determine teacher-learner interactions.

(43)

21 1) Personal and Interpersonal Issues

Several other researchers argued that low competitiveness and self-esteem are the two significant sources of learner anxiety. Bailey (1983) studied the diary entries of 11 students and reported that competitiveness can lead to anxiety when language learners compare themselves to others or to an idealized self-image. Likewise, Price (1991) found that the majority of her subjects believed their language skills to be weaker than those of the others in class that they weren't doing a good job and that everyone else looked down on them.

As regards to self-esteem, Hembree (1988) in Linh (2011) implies that students who start out with a self-perceived low ability level in a foreign or second language are most likely to experience language anxiety. Krashen (1987) also suggests that anxiety can arise according to one's degree of self-esteem as those students tend to worry about what their peers or friends think, in fear of their negative responses or evaluation.

Anxiety was, moreover, related to self-confidence gained as a result of perceived communicative competence (Clement, 1980). Lack of anxiety is thus viewed as a predictor of self-confidence characterizing motivated language learners. Another personality trait that has a positive correlation with FLA is shyness Chu (2008) in Zhang (2010). Chu (2008) in Zhang (2010) affirms that anxiety, unwillingness to communicate and shyness function together to create a negative impact on Taiwanese students’ in studying English.

(44)

2) Learner’s Beliefs about Language Learning

Learner’s beliefs about language learning can also be associated with anxiety (Horwitz et al., 1986; Horwitz, 1988, 1989; Price, 1991; Young, 1991). Horwitz's study (1988) in Young (1991, p. 428) revealed that the students:

(1) expressed great concern over the correctness of their utterances, (2) placed a great deal of stress on speaking with "an excellent accent", (3) supported the notion that language learning is primarily translating from English (4) believed that two years is enough time to become fluent in another language and (5) believed some people were more able to learn a foreign language than others. In addition, many students also believed that learning a second language primarily involved memorizing vocabulary words and grammatical rules.

According to Tallon (2008, p. 4), “when students’ unrealistic expectations about language learning are not met, the situation can lead to negative feelings about one’s intelligence and abilities.” Such unrealistic beliefs like what Horwitz (1988) found may make the students later become disappointed and frustrated. I conclude that unrealistic beliefs may make students have unrealistic expectations about language learning process, thus leading to anxiety. In addition, Palacios (1998) in Tallon (2008, p. 5) found that the following beliefs are associated with FLA. They are

(1) the feeling that mastering a language is an overwhelming task, (2) the feeling that one needs to go through a translation process in order to communicate in the target language, (3) the difficulty of keeping everything in one’s head and (4) the belief that learning a language is easier at an earlier age.

3) Teacher’s Beliefs about Language Teaching

Teacher’s beliefs about language teaching determine the teacher-learner interactions. They are further possible sources of language anxiety because the teacher's assumption about the role of language teachers may not always

(45)

correspond to the student's needs or expectations toward him or her (Ohata, 2005 in Linh, 2011). Young (1991) identifies the following teacher beliefs which have been shown to evoke feelings of anxiety in students: (1) it is necessary for the teacher to be intimidating at times, (2) the instructor is supposed to correct every single mistake made by the students, (3) group or partner work is not appropriate because it can get out of control, (4) the teacher should do most of the talking and (5) the instructor’s role is that of a drill sergeant.

Besides, Palacios (1998) in Tallon (2008) found the following characteristics of the teacher to be associated with anxiety. They are absence of teacher support, unsympathetic personalities, lack of time for personal attention, favoritism, absence that the class does not provide students with the tools necessary to match up with the teacher’s expectations and the sense of being judged by the teacher or wanting to impress the teacher. A judgmental teaching attitude (Samimy, 1994 in Linh, 2011) and a harsh manner of teaching (Aida, 1994) are closely linked to student fear in the classroom. In addition, Ando (1999) in Linh (2011, p. 41) argues that “having a native speaker for a teacher can cause anxiety because the teacher may lack the sensitivity of the learning process or the teacher’s English may be hard for students to understand.”

4) Classroom Characteristics

Young (1991) propose a list of classroom activities which are perceived as anxiety-provoking: (1) spontaneous role play in front of the class, (2) speaking in front of the class, (3) oral presentations or skits in front of the class, (4) presenting a prepared dialogue in front of the class and (5) writing work on the board. Similarly, Palacios (1998) in Tallon (2008, p. 6) found that “demands of oral

(46)

production, feelings of being put on the spot, the pace of the class, and the element of being evaluated (i.e., fear of negative evaluation) to be anxiety-producing to students.” Young (1999) emphasizes that putting the learner “on the spot” in front of their classmates without allowing adequate preparation is also source of anxiety for many students. Moreover, Oxford (1999) emphasizes learning and teaching styles as a potential source of language anxiety. If the teacher’s teaching style and a student’s learning style are not compatible, “style wars” can trigger or heighten anxiety levels.

5) Classmates

According to Horwitz et al. (1986), anxiety especially FNE is triggered not only by the teacher as a fluent speaker but also the classmates. Koch and Terrell (1991) similarly state that speaking in front of the peers is another source of anxiety in learning a foreign language. In her study, Young (1990) investigated the students’ perspectives on anxiety and speaking. The result of her study revealed that, in a language class, the students felt most anxious when they had to speak in front of their peers. Horwitz et al. (1986) suggest that language classrooms are threatening in part because students are often required to communicate in front of their peers in an unfamiliar language and are often publicly evaluated while doing so.

d. Manifestation of FLA

According to Oxford (1999, p. 66), anxiety in general and FLA in particular can have “physical, psychological and behavioral manifestation.” The manifestation can differ from one to another. Physical symptoms include bodily reactions such as rapid heartbeat, muscle tension, dry mouth, and excessive

(47)

perspiration. Psychological symptoms include feelings of helplessness, problems with concentration such as going blank and inability to concentrate, as well as memory difficulties such as poor memory recall and retention. Moreover, behavioral symptoms include physical actions such as squirming, fidgeting, playing with hair or clothing nervously touching objects, stuttering or stammering displaying jittery behavior, being unable to reproduce the sounds or intonation of the target language even after repeated practice. More importantly, behavioral symptoms of anxiety can be manifested in negative avoidance behaviors like inappropriate silence, monosyllabic or non-committal responses, lack of eye contact, unwillingness to participate, coming late, arriving unprepared, showing indifference, cutting class, and withdrawal from the course. In addition, other signs might reflect language anxiety depending on the culture. The symptoms are excessive study, perfectionism, hostility, excessive competitiveness, as well as excessive self-effacement and self-criticism (e.g. “I am so stupid”).

e. Students’ Strategies to Cope with FLA

Folkman and Moskowitz (2004) claim that coping is accomplished through the thoughts and behaviors used to manage the internal and external demands of situations that are appraised as stressful. Despite the absence of direct empirical work that deals with strategies that students use to cope with their FLA, extensive research has been done to help students cope with their anxieties in academic setting (Kondo and Ying-Ling, 2004). Generally, three approaches to the alleviation of anxiety are cognitive, affective and behavioral approaches (Hembree, 1988 in Kondo & Ying-Ling, 2004). These three intervention

(48)

approaches provide the basis for the types of strategies students may use to tackle their language anxiety.

According to Kondo and Ying-Ling (2004), if students think that their cognition (worry, preoccupations, and concerns) creates anxiety, they may attempt to suppress or alter the thought processes related to language learning. Those who believe that somatic arousal (physical responses to anxiety) is the main concern may find ways to ease bodily reactions and tension. If students assume that anxiety arises because they lack the necessary academic skills, they may study harder. However, if students perceive that their anxieties are too much to cope with, they may not invest effort in reducing the anxiety. In their study which was designed to develop a typology of strategies that Japanese students use to cope with English language learning anxiety, Kondo and Ying-Ling (2004, p. 258) identified 70 basic tactics and put them into five strategy categories. Those include:

(1) Preparation (e.g. studying hard, trying to obtain good summaries of lecture notes), (2) Relaxation (e.g. taking a deep breath, trying to calm down), (3) Positive thinking (e.g. imagining oneself giving a great performance, trying to enjoy the tension), (4) Peer seeking (e.g. looking for others who are having difficulty controlling their anxieties, asking other students if they understand the class), and (5) Resignation (e.g. giving up, sleeping in class) (p. 47).

According to Kondo and Ying-Ling (2004), preparation can be considered a behavioral strategy because it focuses on behavioral components of language learning that are related to effective performance in class. Relaxation is characterized by its affective quality in that it aims at alleviating bodily tension associated with emotional arousal. Positive thinking and peer seeking are attempts

(49)

to suppress or alter problematic thought processes related to language learning, and thus can be subsumed into cognitive strategies.

f. Effects of FLA

MacIntyre et al. (1998) lists five major effects of FLA in language learning and performance. First, academically, FLA is one of the best predictors of language proficiency since high levels of FLA are associated with low levels of academic achievement in foreign language learning. The second effect is the social effect. Students with high anxiety level are not interested to take part in interpersonal communication with others. Third, cognitively, FLA can occur at any stage of language acquisition. FLA can become an affective filters that prevents certain information from entering a student’s cognitive processing system. Fourth, FLA arousal influence the quality of communication output as the retrieval of information may be interrupted when students get anxious. Finally, personally, language learning experience could, under some circumstances, become a traumatic experience. This kind of unpleasant experience may dramatically disturb one’s self-esteem or self-confidence as a student.

3. Relationship between Motivation and FLA

Both anxiety and motivation play fundamental parts in English learning. They are closely related to each other in second and foreign language learning (Liu & Huang, 2011). Various levels of foreign language learners’ accomplishment might be influenced by anxiety and motivation. Motivation is one of the factors that influence the success of language learning. Language anxiety, however, often works against motivation to learn. It is thus important to

(50)

review the relationship between motivation and anxiety in terms of students’ English learning achievement.

The relationship between language motivation and language anxiety has been investigated by some researchers. Language anxiety was found to be negatively related to motivation (Gardner et al., 1987; Hashimoto, 2002; Yang, Liu & Wu, 2010; Liu & Huang, 2011). Clement, Dornyei and Noels (1994) found that learners who are more motivated to learn language are usually less anxious learners who have better previous experiences, who evaluate their own proficiency more highly and who consider the learning tasks are less difficult. According to Noels, Clement and Pelletier (2001), the more learners feel amotivated, the less effort they will expand and the more anxiety they will feel. Another study conducted by Liu and Cheng (2014) also found that Taiwanese university freshmen’s anxiety levels were significantly lower when students had a higher degree of motivation. The finding of Liu and Cheng’s study also revealed that the combination of communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation acted as primary source language anxiety in the Taiwanese EFL classroom.

Tahernezhad, Behjat and Kargar (2014) investigated the degree of anxiety among Iranian intermediate EFL learners and its relation to their motivation. To the end, a total number of 80 EFL learners (35 males and 45 females) were selected through cluster random sampling from two language classes at Islamic Azad University in Iran as the participants in this study. The instruments used to collect the data from the participants were the Foreign Language Learning Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and Gardner’s (1985) Attitude/Motivation Test Battery

(51)

(AMTB). The results indicated that the majority of the participants experienced a mid to high level of language learning anxiety. Besides, it was found that the participants with lower levels of the language learning anxiety were more motivated to learn English while those with higher levels of the language learning anxiety were less motivated to learn English.

4. Lived Experience

“Lived experience is the starting point and end point of phenomenological research” (van Manen, 1990, p. 36). Van Manen (1990) points out eight important philosophical points of phenomenology research. First, “phenomenological research is the study of lived experience” (van Manen, 1990, p. 9). Langdridge (2007, p. 4) points out the same way that when doing phenomenological studies, “we aim to focus on people’s perceptions of the world in which they live and what this means to them: a focus on people’s lived experience.” “Phenomenology is the study of the lifeworld–the world as we immediately experience it pre-reflectively rather than as we conceptualize, categorize or reflect on it” (Husserl, 1970; Schutz & Luckmann, 1973 in van Manen, 1990, p. 9). Van Manen (1990, p. 9) states that “phenomenology aims at gaining a deeper understanding of the nature or meaning of our everyday experiences.” Phenomenology asks what this or that kind of experience is like. What I can highlight here is that, according to van Manen (1990), phenomenology bring us in more direct contact with the world instead of offering us the possibility of effective theory with which we can now explain and/or control the world.

Second, “phenomenological research is the explication of a phenomenon as it presents itself to consciousness” (van Manen, 1990, p. 9). “The word

(1)

131

ngobrol ada yang kelupaan, aku hubungin kamu lewat whatsapp atau lewat messenger ya. Makasih udah ngrepotin.

(2)

132

APPENDIX 12. In-Depth Interview Transcript 2 (Petra)

Name : Petra (pseudonym)

Day and Date : Thursday, 24th March 2016 Time : 09.20 – 10.30

The interview was done through chatting on Whatsapp. R: Researcher

P: Petra

Text R1 Hai Petra! Apa kabar?

P1 Baik mbak. Mbak gimana kabarnya? R2 Aku juga baik, Petra! Lagi sibuk ga? P2 Belum sibuk mbak.

R3 Ada beberapa hal yang mau aku tanyakan lagi nih dek, ada hubungannya dengan hal-hal yang kita obrolin beberapa minggu yang lalu.

P3 Oya mbak, tanya aja.

R4 Oke. Pet, aku mau tanya. Waktu itu kamu share pengalamanmu pas presentasi di kelas CLS. Waktu itu kamu presentasi apa ya topiknya?

P4 Nature School. R5 Itu kelompok kan ya? P5 Iya.

R6 Sekelompok berapa orang? P7 3 orang. Termasuk aku.

R8 Okay. Bisa kamu deskripsikan presentasimu? Secara singkat aja. P8 Jadi presentasinya itu soal keuntungan dari nature school. Aku

lupa-lupa inget mbak.

R9 Kamu presentasikan sumbernya dari buku atau bener-bener buat sendiri?

(3)

133 P9 Kita browsing mbak.

R10 Oke oke. Saat kamu presentasi gitu, apa yang kamu pikirkan tentang dosenmu yang saat itu mengamati dan mendengarkan presentasimu?

P10 Aku mikir kalau dosennya bakal menilai jelek soalnya muka dosennya seperti serius mbak. Senyumnya jarang sekali.

R11 Padahal kamu cerita kemarin itu kalau dosenmu bukan termasuk dosen killer ya? Adakah pengaruhnya ke kamu?

P11 Iya mbak. Aku jadi tambah nervous gitu waktu presentasi. R12 Nervous? Bisa dijelaskan gimana nervousnya?

P12 Ya jadi yang mau diomongin jadi hilang gitu mbak. Kaya lupa sama materinya.

R13 Gimana cara kamu mengatasi itu?

P13 Aku berusaha mikir positif kalau aku tuh bisa presentasi lancar. R14 Noted. Dan pada akhirnya, feedback apa yang dikasih oleh

dosenmu?

P14 Mispronounce sama kebanyakan benerin rambut mbak kalau ga salah.

R15 Mispronounce memang kamu ga tau sebelumnya gimana cara bacanya atau kamu tahu tapi tapi ga sadar kalau salah?

P15 Tau mbak pronouncenya tapi ga sadar kalau salah.

R16 Oke oke. Pas kita ngobrol-ngobrol kemarin, kamu cerita kalau ada beberapa temenmu suka ngomong di belakang. Adakah pengaruhnya di saat itu pas kamu presentasi?

P16 Aku jadi lupa materinya mbak. R17 And finally, kamu gimana?

P17 Berusaha cuek aja mbak tapi kadang kedistract juga.

R18 Oke sama kaya yang kamu ceritain ke aku terakhir kali ya. Di akhir presentasi, teman-temanmu kasih feedback, komentar atau pertanyaan?

(4)

134

R19 Oke oke. Jadi kalau tentang dosen kamu berusaha mikir positif dan kalau teman-teman, kamu berusaha cuekin aja. Kenapa memilih melakukan itu Pet?

P19 Kalau aku mikirin pandangan negatif dosen dan teman-teman kan pasti ujung-ujungnya ya ga bisa ngomong, ga bisa presentasi lancar. Intinya kaya aku bilang waktu itu mbak. Aku pengen bisa ngomong bahasa Inggris dengan lancar dan pengen bisa dapet nilai bagus di kelas. Jadi aku fokus sama apa yang bisa aku lakuin. R20 Dan overall, presentasimu lancar ga, Pet?

P20 Ya agak kesendat-sendat sih tapi tetep lancar.

R21 Sippp. Kamu kan udah cerita beberapa cara untuk mengatasi kecemasanmu presentasi di depan kelas, karena dosenmu dan teman-temanmu. Sebenarnya proses untuk mengatasi itu sulit ga sih?

P21 Ya susah tapi bisa. Tergantung dari akunya. Pada awalnya sih buang pikiran negatif dan berani ngomong di depan kelas tapi aku tetep usahain bisa dan sekarang sedikit-sedikit aku berubah.

R22 Pernah mengalami gagal mengatasi kecemasanmu saat presentasi yang lain? Di kelas lain mungkin. Atau aktifitas di kelas lainnya. P22 Sejauh ini belum mbak. Aku selalu nyiapin apa yang aku omongin

gitu biar ga salah.

R23 Oke gitu aja Petra yang aku mau tanyakan buat melengkapi ceritamu yang lalu. Thanks banget ya! Gbu

(5)

135

APPENDIX 13. In-Depth Interview Transcript 3 (Petra)

Name : Petra (pseudonym) Location : A café in Yogyakarta Day and Date : Tuesday, 17th May 2016 Time : 11.00 – 11.30

R: Researcher P: Petra

Text R1 Halo, dek.

P1 Halo, mbak.

R2 Ketemu lagi ya kita. (laughing) P2 Iya mbak. (laughing)

R3 Ketemu gini aku mau make sure dan tanya beberapa hal. Dikit aja. P3 Oke mbak.

R4 Pet, waktu itu aku minta kamu ceritakan pengalaman terakhirmu merasa begitu cemas di dalam proses belajar mengajar di dalam kelas. Dan apakah itu juga yang paling cemas selama ini?

P4 Betul mbak.

R5 Selama semester 3 atau selama semester 1 sampai 3? P5 Selama semester 1 sampai 3.

R6 O gitu. Oke-oke. Waktu itu kamu merasa beban ya karena harus sama dengan yang kamu presentasikan? Apakah itu bisa dibilang standarmu? P6 Iya betul mbak.

R7 Adakah standar lain supaya kamu merasa puas dengan presentasimu? P7 Kalau grammar udah dipersiapkan ya. Kaitannya dengan performance

sih mbak. Aku berharapnya dosen dan teman-teman lebih tertarik dengerin aku.

R8 O iya kamu mengatasi dengan cara positive thinking. Sebenernya positive thinking seperti apa sih? Spesifiknya…

(6)

136

P8 Aku berusaha percaya sama kemampuanku mbak. Aku bilang “bisa,

bisa, bisa” ke diriku sendiri.

R9 Oke. Noted. Kalau aku bisa mengajukan pertanyaan terakhir nih ya. What does the experience mean to you? Seperti apa dan apa artinya pengalaman itu buat kamu?

P9 Pengalaman itu pengalaman yang tak terlupakan. Jadi istilahnya dari situ lain kali aku harus bisa menyiapkan presentasi dengan bagus dan percaya sama diri sendiri.

R10 Oke siap. Thank you Petra! P10 Sama-sama mbak.

The highly-motivated student`s lived experience of communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation.

Parts

Dokumen yang terkait

Fear Of Success Wanita Bekerja Pada Etnis Melayu

Lecturer`s lived experience in public speaking feedback in The ELESP of Sanata Dharma University.

Student`s lived experience on the toughest place to be a Binman in CLS 1.

Teachers lived experience of the scientific approach in teaching English.

The lived experience of novice English teachers at a primary level.

English testing and learning at the vocational school : student`s lived experience.

The teacher and student lived experience in english class from the point of view of equity pedagogy.

THE INFLUENCE OF SATISFACTION COMMUNICATION AND THE EXPERIENCE TOWARD THE LEVEL OF TRUST OF INDOSATS PRE PAID CUSTOMERS

The teacher and student lived experience in english class from the point of view of equity pedagogy - USD Repository

English testing and learning at the vocational school : student`s lived experience - USD Repository

Dukungan

Links

The highly-motivated student`s lived experience of communication apprehension and fear of negative evaluation.

Parts

Dokumen yang terkait

Fear Of Success Wanita Bekerja Pada Etnis Melayu

Lecturer`s lived experience in public speaking feedback in The ELESP of Sanata Dharma University.

Student`s lived experience on the toughest place to be a Binman in CLS 1.

Teachers lived experience of the scientific approach in teaching English.

The lived experience of novice English teachers at a primary level.

English testing and learning at the vocational school : student`s lived experience.

The teacher and student lived experience in english class from the point of view of equity pedagogy.

THE INFLUENCE OF SATISFACTION COMMUNICATION AND THE EXPERIENCE TOWARD THE LEVEL OF TRUST OF INDOSATS PRE PAID CUSTOMERS

The teacher and student lived experience in english class from the point of view of equity pedagogy - USD Repository

English testing and learning at the vocational school : student`s lived experience - USD Repository

Dokumen yang Anda mencari sudah siap untuk unduhkan