17
Stage 8: Recycling stage
The last stage is the stage of determining the fit between goals set and the final performance of the learners, revising content, and revising materials and
methodological procedures. At this point, the whole cycle can be begun again. Adjustments might be made anywhere in the system based on the feedback
provided to the designer. Yalden describes the strengths of using the communicative syllabus. Those
are as follows. 1 Learner-centred aspect in the syllabus is significant.
2 The process of continual is quite probable, and one can improve the syllabus at any time.
3 The model of syllabus design is dynamic and allow for constant feedback from various points into the area of syllabus type that is selection of content
and other areas such as teaching procedures. 4 Teachers are challenged to use the target language at native or native-like
levels to create materials and stimulate interactions. Figure 2.2 is the language program development proposed by Yalden.
Figure 2.2 Yalden’s Model: Language Program Development 1987:88
Needs survey
Description of purpose
Selectiond evelopment
of syllabus type
Production of a proto-
syllabus Production of
a pedagogical syllabus
Development and implement-
ation of classroom
procedures Evalua
tion
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2. Foreign Language Learning for Children
This following subsection describes three major points which are the development and characteristics of children, the principle of children language
learning, and the activities in the classroom.
a. Child Development and Characteristics
It is important to acknowledge the concepts of the subject clearly, the fourth grade of elementary school students. This is aimed to obtain the expected result in
designing the suitable materials. According to Piaget as stated by Lefrancois 1986: 52, organization and
adaptation are the two fundamental characteristics of a child cognitive development. Organization means arranging the information into meaningful
patterns or structures; whereas adaptation is a process through which a person copes with the integration of new information into existing pattern and
prescription. Craig describes that “middle childhood ages 6-12 is the time before
adolescence when the child is adjusting to the new environment of school, is forming close ties with people outside the home, and is developing work and
playing habits along with many interests”. That means during this time children experience many developmental ideas and attitudes toward their society.
Therefore, children explore their ideas and creativities during this time. Piaget, as stated by Vasta et al, proposes the four stage of children progress.
Those are the sensorimotor period, the pre-operational period, concrete operational period, and formal operational period. The sensorimotor period
19 represents the first two years of life, while the pre-operational period covers from
the age of 2 to the age of 6 and 7. The extent in concrete operational period is from 6 or 7 to 11 or 12, and the formal operational period continues from 11 or 12
until the adulthood or old age 1995: 35. Based on the theories above, the fourth grade of elementary school students,
age of 9 or 10, are in the middle childhood and the concrete period. This means that the students are in the stage where they start to form concepts and try to
express in the real situation. In addition, Vasta et al assert that children are in the stage where their mental operations make logical problem solving with concrete
objects possible 1995: 35. Thus, these students focus on real and concrete ideas. According to Anderson, there is a critical period. It is easier to learn a
language from age of 2 to about 111980: 394. This period is based on informal observation of children of various age and adults in new linguistic communities.
Children in the elementary school grow and develop during their six years in school. They are divided into two, namely the primary grade during the first three
years and the intermediate grade the last three years Cole, 1956: 124. The students in the fourth grade are in the intermediate grade. Therefore, children in
this stage exhibit characteristic development: physical, intellectual, emotional, and social aspect.
b. Principle of Children Language Learning
There are some points should be understood in teaching English to children: children’s ability to grasp meaning, children’s instinct for play and fun, the role of
20 imagination, and the instinct for interaction and talk Halliwell, 1992: 3-8. In the
first point, Halliwell states that “children can learn through intonation, demonstration, gesture, facial expressions, actions and circumstances to
understand the unknown words and phrases” 1992: 3. It means that teachers should understand students’ difficulties in learning a language and when they
encounter it, teachers may help them by utilizing some points above. Children have instinct for playing and having fun. By understanding this,
teachers should provide materials and activities that are able to build children’s interests. Children may be interested in learning English by activating their
kinaesthetic ability. Besides, children’s imagination is being a part of ways in learning language. The imagination and fantasy of children may be stimulated by
giving materials that can build their imagination. Halliwell explains that “children’s capability for interact and talk is one of
the most powerful motivators for using the language” 1992: 8. It implies that materials and activities which are able to encourage children to talk and interact
with other should be provided in order to maximize the effectiveness of the learning process.
3. Multiple Intelligences Theory
In order to improve the education quality, the teaching learning should not only emphasized on cognitive domain only but also to all aspects of humanity.
Therefore, learning nowadays has the purpose to build a good human being in all aspects.
21 Theory of multiple intelligences was introduced and developed first by
Howard Gardner in 1983. He defines intelligence as the ability to solve problems and to produce or offer service that is valued in one’s culture. In multiple
intelligences theory, learners are viewed as a unique learner who possesses individual learning styles, choices or intelligences. Moreover, there are various
intelligences that giving contribution in the development of learners’ learning. According to Armstrong, multiple intelligences theory is a contribution of
cognitive science 1994: 1. Multiple intelligences theory recognizes that intelligences may emerge in many aspects of humanity.
a. Types of Multiple Intelligences
The theory of multiple intelligences reveals that our intelligences are multifaceted. Every person has multiple intelligences but owns different level of
intelligences which can be developed through training and practice. Gardner states that in the area of brain study, there have been the localizers, who believe that
different portion of the nervous system mediate various intellectual capacities. Gardner classifies multiple intelligences into eight intelligences 1999: 41-43.
The intelligences are as follows. 1 Linguistic Intelligence
Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain
goals. This intelligence includes the ability to use language effectively to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember
information.
22 2 Logical-mathematical Intelligence
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically.
This intelligence is often associated with scientific and mathematical thought. 3 Musical Intelligence
Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and
compose musical pitches, tones and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence.
4 Bodily-kinesthetic Intelligence Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using ones whole body or
parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements.
5 Spatial intelligence Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of
wide space and more confined areas. 6 Interpersonal intelligence
Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work
effectively with others.
