CHAPTER NINETEEN The 50s

CHAPTER NINETEEN The 50s

Realism and Romanticism continue to hold their own with some changes Introduction Slowly but surely the world is beginning to recover from the war. Rampant nationalism and

the aggressiveness of communism dominate world events. Everywhere the seeming success of communism in China and Russia provides a model and these two countries supply active support for any aspiring national element trying to get ahead in this new world order. The cooperation of the allies in World War II changes to confrontation between Russia and "the West." This will be a decade of civil rights, communism scares and Arab revolutions. It will also be a decade of conformity, where, all over the world, in each society, there seems to be a desperate need to conform to whatever the social standards are in that particular country. The effort at avid, mindless conformity will end in the late 60s in an abrupt about face.

World Events This decade is often referred to as the American Decade because of the pervasive influence

exercised by the United States in cultural, political and, especially, economic affairs. Meanwhile, the whole world is anxiously waiting for the other shoe to drop. The threat of atomic holocaust hangs over the whole planet. Since the United States dropped those two bombs on Japan in 1945, the Russians, Chinese, French, and who knows who else, are rushing to build, buy, borrow or steal, their own bombs. Atomic testing is being done in all sorts of supposedly out of the way places (like the American west, Siberia, the Sahara desert and in various islands and empty spaces in the Pacific Ocean). The race is on to upgrade the destructive level from atomic bombs to the more devastating hydrogen bombs. U.S. military expenditure almost quadruples. Soviet defense spending rises by two-thirds. In the United States they are doing a big business in selling home bomb shelters ("no back yard should be without one") and the federal and local governments are running around designating community bomb shelters and stocking them with food, water, medicine and everything else needed for a (very) long stay. The 50s are a crash course in how to survive the bomb, atomic war and the resulting devastation. Fortunately, it never happens, but during this decade it looks more and more likely. The classic British movie of 1964 captures this 50s anxiety in unforgettable images, Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb*. World trade volume soars with monetary stability and all those international agreements that lets goods flow relatively smoothly.

In the United States it is a decade of civil rights struggles and communism scares. The population increases by 19 percent in what is later known as the "baby boom.". 1950 begins with a U.S. population of 150,697,361 and, by January 1, 1960, the U.S. population will reach 179,245,000. The average weekly wage in industry $60.53, an all time high. Illiteracy is 3.2 percent, an all time low. Minimum wage is $.75 and there are 1,900,000 unemployed.

Great Britain moves toward establishing self-government in her colonies (including the British Caribbean) and starts moving them toward independence.

Europe is slowly recovering with all that American aid funnelled through the Marshall plan. Even though the Nuremberg trials are over, Nazis-hunting continues. So many officials associated with the concentration camps were not apprehended and now show up on a number of "wanted" lists.

In Asia peacekeeping armed forces are established by the United Nations* to repel North Korean forces which are bent on taking over the whole Korean penninsula from the South Koreans.

In Africa the colonies and territories that make up British, French, Belgian, Spanish and Portuguese holdings begin their movements toward independence and self-rule. It will be a rocky road.

In the Middle East and North Africa it is a time of Arab revolutions and conflicts with the new state of Israel.

In the Mediterranean, Greek Cypriots are agitating for self-rule on the British-held island of Cyprus. This will cause untold trouble as time goes on.

Society The Western world is dominated by the Americans and American society. In America we are

in the middle of a social revolution. At the end of the war with millions of service men coming home there was a real housing shortage. A construction man (named Levit) who had served in the SeaBees construction battalion decided to remedy the housing shortage by turning a bunch of potato fields in New York into tract housing. It becomes Levittown and life patterns will never be the same for middle and working class people. He began in 1946 and is now in full swing, building houses like crazy and selling them on time. The people who move into these houses are all about the same age, are busy having kids at about the same time and all this produces really weird suburbs where there are no age variations in the residents. Kids grow up thinking this is normal. They also grow up watching TV sitcoms like Ozzie and Harriet, Leave It To Beaver and Father Knows Best and thinking the domestic life on television is the way it is in real life. By the time they become adults and discover the world is quite different they will create the 60s revolution. They will be known as the "baby boomers."

A universal culture is emerging as radio and phonograph records spread American popular music (swing and bebop) around the world. New York is now the center of the world art market and abstract expressionism is the big thing (Jackson Pollock* and de Kooning).

Theatre Events During the 1950s playwrights blossom and their works capture the malaise of the decade with

all the anger of unfulfilled hopes, the feelings of uncertainty and fear for the future. While a number of French playwrights from before the war continue in the mainstream fashion, the new movement of Absurdism* flourishes this decade and quickly reaches America.

In France, the director Roger Blin* (1907-1984) is one of the most important of the avant- garde producers of Absurdism*. He will stage the plays of Samuel Beckett* and Jean Genet*. Another such director is Andr‚ Reybaz* who will produce Eug‚ne Ionesco*'s absurdist* plays at one of those out-of-the-way theatres specializing in the avant-garde.

In Britain, festivals add to the vitality of the English theatre in Edinburgh, Chichester, Malvern, Glyndebourne, Canterbury and Adelburgh. At the Theatre Workshop* Joan Littlewood* (1914 -) develops a number of playwrights including Brendan Behan* and Shelagh Delaney*. She is responsible for a number of productions which successfully transfer In Britain, festivals add to the vitality of the English theatre in Edinburgh, Chichester, Malvern, Glyndebourne, Canterbury and Adelburgh. At the Theatre Workshop* Joan Littlewood* (1914 -) develops a number of playwrights including Brendan Behan* and Shelagh Delaney*. She is responsible for a number of productions which successfully transfer

THE NEW HERO - In America the change to the new kind of hero is pretty much accomplished. This is evident,

not only in the theatre, but even more so in the movies. The new masculine ideal (according to American films) is no longer the suave gentleman. Now it's the alienated, inarticulate, working-class, physical hunk, radiating danger, sex and social disaster. Marlon Brando*, after working in the theatre, has moved on to the movies and he represents this heroic ideal for the over-conforming generation of young urban professionals who are trapped in their grey flannel suits. Like the young male heroes in Williams*' Streetcar Named Desire* (played by Brando* on stage and in the film,) and Picnic* by William Inge* (1952,) this heroic type is rude and rough but he has sensitivity, he shows his anger but he is filled with anguish. This new hero will show up on the stage in Britain soon in a whole movement (known as the "angry young men.")

In America the move toward decentralizing the theatre continues. 1950 Society At the end of the Second World War the nation of Korea had been divided along the 38th

parallel into two zones of occupation, The north was under the Soviets and the south under the United States. In 1948 rival Korean governments had been established. In June the northern force invade the south. The western powers win United Nations approval for a "Police Action" in Korea to oppose the communist north's invasion. This armed conflict is the first attempt by the United Nations to enforce its ban on armed aggression. This "Police Action" will last from 1950 into 1953. For everybody who got used to warfare in the Second World War, this armed conflict will come as a whole different kettle of fish. General Douglas MacArthur is put in charge of the U.N. forces. In October the Chinese Communist forces invade and occupy Tibet. The Dalai Lama * flees into exile in India. As the U.N. troops push the North Korean forces back, they approach the Chinese border, this brings the Chinese Communist forces into the action and they join forces with the North Korean army. This turns the tide the other way and by January they will push the U.N. forces south and capture Seoul, the main city of South Korea.

The United States is also engaged in a mutual assistance program that supplies military hardware to the South Vietnamese.

In the United States - On January 21 Alger Hiss is convicted of espionage. He has been a courier for a communist spy group. This sort of thing, as well as the Korean "Police Action" In the United States - On January 21 Alger Hiss is convicted of espionage. He has been a courier for a communist spy group. This sort of thing, as well as the Korean "Police Action"

Theatre The United States - the new midwestern (Kansas) playwright, William Inge* (1913-1973,)

has his first Broadway stage success with Come Back Little Sheba* . Shirley Booth* (1907- ) is memorable in it as the talkative, pathetic and inadequate wife of an alcoholic. The set for this play is a realistic representation of a lower-class kitchen. The fully operable kitchen appliances, including running water in the kitchen sink, will contribute to the description of this type of play about lower middle-class problems, which take place in the kitchens, as "kitchen-sink" realism. Clifford Odets*, the playwright closely associated with the Group Theatre* in the 30s, regains some of his earlier fire and comes out with The Country Girl*. Another regional theatre gets underway this year in August, in Washington D.C., when the director, Zelda Fichandler*, founds a group which will come to be known as the Arena Stage*. Musical comedy is alive and well as Frank Loesser*'s Guys and Dolls* opens on Broadway and the Pulitzer* prize this year goes to South Pacific* by Richard Rogers**, Oscar Hammerstein, II*, and Joshua Logan*.

The ITI* begins publishing a periodical designed to disseminate theatrical information, the World Theatre*. [Publication will continue until 1968.]

Absurdism* France - Eug‚ne Ionesco*'s absurdist* play, The Bald Soprano* (written in 1949,) is directed

by Nicolas Bataille* at one of those out-of-the-way theatres, (the Th‚ƒtre des Noctambules,) specializing in the avant-garde. Ionesco* calls this work a "tragedy of language." It was earlier entitled English Made Easy because the whole idea grew out of Ionesco*'s experiences in learning English, self-taught, from a book (English-French Conversation Manual for Beginners). In this play words become empty shells without meaning and the characters who speak them have no psychological reality or depth. Time, space and the whole world operate under arbitrary and meaningless laws. The action is not a plot, but a series of social clich‚s. The characters are interchangeable and can be identified only by their clothes (the fire chief, the husband, the wife, the maid). The exciting element of the play is the language and this attracts the attention of critics. Nonsensical dialogue, empty formulas, slogans, and even non- words, vowels, sounds, all reveal the incredible difficulty of meaningful verbal communication.

A sort-of-surrealist playwright, the Swiss-educated Russian, Arthur Adamov* (1908-1971) also has his first work produced this year, The Invasion*. He will be part of the absurdist* movement, showing (in a part serious, part comic way) a cruel world of moral destructiveness that so attracts many artists still suffering the effects of the war. Like Ionesco*, he portrays characters who must fail because they have an inability to communicate with each other. Unlike Ionesco*, Adamov*'s characters suffer personal anxieties over their plight. He will not

be as popular or as influential as Ionesco*, but he will be a major contributor to this movement.

Britain - Christopher Fry* continues to be popular as his poetic play, Venus Observed* and his translation of Anouilh*'s play as Ring Round the Moon* are produced in London and then on Broadway.

1951 Society On April 11 General MacArthur is relieved of command of the U.N. forces in Korea by

President Truman* who gets fed up with the General not following orders. General Matthew

B. Ridgeway is his replacement. The fighting continues to hover around the 38th parallel and goes nowhere. Nobody is very happy with this.

ARGENTINA - Mar¡a Eva Duarte de Per¢n* publishes her book, The Purpose of My Life* this year. Next year she will die of cancer. However, in 1978, her life and her book form the basis for a very popular musical, Evita*.

In the United States - On June 26 the first commercial color television broadcast occurs, unfortunately no color TV sets are owned by public which makes viewing the broadcast problematic. This year: the employment of women reaches the highest point in history. the first atomic powered generator begins producing electricity in Idaho. there is a demonstration of the first commercial computer, UNIVAC . the US has poured more than 12 billion dollars into European economic recovery since 1948 through the Marshall Plan.

There is an unshakable Arab refusal to recognize the existence of the state of Israel. The Arab League begins an economic blockade in September that leads to a permanent state of war, punctuated with various incidents.

In Iran the Mossadegh government nationalizes the British-owned oil industry in May. This government won't last long.

Theatre In France - Jean Vilar* (1912-1971) is appointed director of the Th‚ƒtre National Populaire*

(TNP). He has a pretty sick group to deal with and it takes him a while to develop it, but the TNP will become one of the most popular troupes in France by 1954. The home of the TNP is the Palais de Chaillot* in Paris, but they play the big Avigon Dramatic Festival and tour all over France. This makes them one of the most influential producing groups in France. Vilar*'s production style is skimpy on scenery and emphasizes the actor, with lots of care to the costumes and lighting. This makes touring easy and follows the production theory of the Cartel* (the group of five French theatre artists who led the French theatre between the wars). Another absurdist* play by Eug‚ne Ionesco*, The Lesson*, is produced by Andr‚ Reybaz*.

Austria also does a lot of theatrical reconstruction, most of it in Vienna. Italy is not particularly endowed with dramatists who achieve international recognition, but

Ugo Betti* (1892-1953) is one who does. Although he started writing for the theatre in the late 20s, it is his later plays that earn him a reputation abroad. This year he writes The Queen and the Rebels*. He is preoccupied with guilt and power which seems to be a topic almost everyone in the postwar world is concerned with.

Britain - Christopher Fry* continues to be popular and his biblical play, A Sleep of Prisoners*, designed to be performed in churches, is seen this year.

In Canada the French-speaking part of that society starts the Th‚ƒtre du Nouveau Monde* in Montreal to put on French classics and encourage playwrights to do new French Canadian works.

Germany - Although over 100 theatres in Germany were destroyed during the war, most of them are replaced. The Germans love their theater! The Schiller Theater* opens in Berlin this year. The Germans are heavy on theatrical technology and this new one has all the latest machinery, complete with revolving stage, elevators, and rolling platforms. This technological emphasis will hold true for the stage area of most of the new theaters, but out in the audience area the boxes and numbers of balconies are reduced and sight lines improved. Erwin Piscator* returns to Germany. He will be directing for many companies before being named Intendant of the Freie Volksb• hne* in West Berlin in 1962. In the next decade he will popularize the emerging documentary drama in Germany. Festivals are very important and this year the most famous, the Bayreuth Festival*, is revived.

The United States - The Circle in the Square* is opened "off-Broadway*", an expression that defines all the smaller theatre companies who were willing to risk giving space to writers such as Brecht*, Ionesco*, and Genet*. This theatre is specifically designed by the Loft* players, under the direction of Jos‚ Quintero* (1924- ), to present theatre-in-the-round. Tennessee Williams*' Rose Tattoo* comes out this year. Lillian Hellman* continues her successful career as a playwright, coming out this year with The Autumn Garden*. Musical comedy shines this year in the production of The King and I* (Rogers and Hammerstein*) starring the memorable Gertrude Lawrence*.

Movies - By now, these new American playwrights are having their plays translated into film and, in this way they are made available to everyone. Last year Williams* ' Glass Menagerie* came out as a film and this year it is Streetcar Named Desire * that is turned into a film version. One of the great benefits of this close relation between theatre and film is the many jobs are available for actors, directors, designers and writers. The theatre works are often turned into film by their authors, or at least the authors help in the screen production. This is the case with Williams*' plays. The movies are not simply filmed versions of the stage plays, but rather, they are specifically recreated in the film medium. These two films will become classics, seen down through the decades.

1952 Society In the United States in July the new G.I. Bill is signed. It offers Korean vets same rights as

World War II vets in getting an education. In November The one-time General, now Republican, Eisenhower*, is elected president as inflation zooms and the Treasury deficit reaches 4 billion dollars. Much of the deficit is due to the increasing expenditures on military research and development. This year we develop an H-bomb (more powerful than the A- bomb, of course, now everybody will want one of these and we will work on developing a cobalt bomb).

In North Africa an Egyptian army officer, Gamal Abdal Nasser*, leads a coup that overthrows King Farouk. Nasser* becomes a rising political leader.

In China there is forced collectivization of industry, agriculture and social institutions, accompanied by the execution of millions of people classified as political enemies of the state.

In South America there is a revolution in Bolivia. The tin mines are nationalized and there is some land reform and status improvement for the Indians.

Theatre Off-Broadway* comes into its own when the Circle in the Square* presents Williams*'

Summer and Smoke* to rave reviews after it failed on Broadway. Jules Irving* and Herbert Blau* found a company called the Actors' Workshop * in San Francisco.

France - Jean Anouilh*'s Waltz of the Toreadors* is produced as this prolific French writer continues his exploration of how a person can maintain their integrity in a world devoted to compromises. Another absurdist* play by Eug‚ne Ionesco*, The Chairs*, is produced by Andr‚ Reybaz*.

1953 Society In the United States - Dwight David Eisenhower* (1953-1961) becomes the first Republican

president since Herbert Hoover (24 years before). Julius and Ethel Rosenberg are convicted of selling secret information about atom bomb to USSR and, consequently, on June 19, have the dubious honor of becoming the first civilians to be executed for espionage. The whole business stirs up passions on both sides of the issue. This year, July 27, Eisenhower* ends the Korean fighting but the peace settlement is tenuous. This is the official end of the "Police Action" which we will call the Korean War.

The Balkans are falling into the Soviet sphere and the Balkan Pact* unites Turkey, Greece and Yugoslavia in closer economic and political ties to put up a united front against Soviet encroachment.

On March 5, in the Soviet Union, Joseph Stalin* dies and there is a scramble for power. One of the international by-products is what is known as a "thaw" in the cold war. This means that relations between the Soviets and the West improve and things aren't quite so touchy. The successor to Stalin* turns out to be Georgi Malenkov*.

Europe - The Coal and Steel Community comes into being, integrating these two basic industries in six countries. A development which will grow into the Common Market. In East Germany and in Poland the doubt and confusion about the Soviet successor encourages opposition groups and there are riots by the workers against the repressive soviet economic system. Red Army units move in to put down these outbreaks.

The great bulk of the French empire is in Africa, and here too, the old-fashioned imperialist administrators use force to try to put down independence movements. These French struggles in Africa occupy French attention throughout the '50s.

Theatre

Britain - Interest in poetic drama is still high and T. S Eliot* comes out with his play The Confidential Clerk*.

Soviet Union - the death of Stalin* begins a series of changes in the theatrical world. Prior censorship gradually disappears, but social realism remains the dominant theatrical form and it is too boring to make any international impression.

France - The Lark* by Jean Anouilh* is presented. This version of the Joan of Arc story will

be popular all over the western world for the next thirty years, especially in Christopher Fry*'s translation (see below 1955).

Absurdism Arrives - This year sees Roger Blin*'s production of the first of these absurdist* plays to become internationally famous, Waiting for Godot*, by the Irish author, Samuel Beckett* (1906-1989,) who chooses to live and write in France. The play expresses the postwar doubts about understanding and controlling the world we live in. His characters wander around in a disintegrating world, isolated spatially and temporally. They ask questions that can't be answered and spend their time consoling and tormenting themselves and each other. The irrationality of human experience is the main message. This play will be taken up by all the American avant-garde theatre groups, but its most successful production will be the San Francisco Actor's Workshop* performance in San Quentin prison. The play rings true for those who experience the world as a prison. Finally Eug‚ne Ionesco* begins to get the recognition he deserves this year when the highly respected playwright, Jean Anouilh*, publishes an article praising Ionesco*'s new play, Victims of Duty*. Although Samuel Beckett*'s plays will be taken up by the intellectual avant-garde, Ionesco*'s plays will be produced more widely and more often (even on Broadway) because they are more theatrically viable. Ionesco* is concerned with social relationships, usually of middle-class families, and how materialistic, bourgeois society dulls and deadens people. He is out to discredit conformity, clich‚s, ideologies and materialism by showing characters who behave as if they are robots, doing and saying things mechanically. He also has material things multiplying and crowding people out. Since he was influenced by the circus, his works tend to be full of visual action and to make fun of the inadequacies of language.

The United States - What with all the communist "witch-hunting" going on in Congress, Arthur Miller* comes out with The Crucible*. Set in Puritan New England, it deals with the consequences of colonial witch-hunting. Picnic* by William Inge* wins the Pulitzer* Prize this year with another of those working-class "hunks" as the male lead. Robert Anderson* has

a Broadway success this year with his new play, Tea and Sympathy*. In New York another "off-Broadway*" theatre opens. The Phoenix* Theatre opens under the management of Norris Houghton* (1909- ) and T. Edward Hambleton* (1911- ). This well-equipped, conventional theatre will offer a wide-ranging program of plays under a number of different directors. It will play a prominent role in American theatrical development this decade, along with other "off-Broadway*" theatres. In addition to other theatrical venues, this year marks the real beginning of the summer festival (rather different from the European variety of dramatic festival). The famous British experimental director, Tyrone Guthrie* (1900-71, as the Festival's artistic director) launches a Shakespearean Festival* at Stratford, Ontario, Canada. It uses an open stage (rather than proscenium, or arena as in other new theatre buildings of the time). The festival and its stage are immediately successful and will influence both Canadian and the United States theatrical developments.

Society In the United States - On May 17th racial segregation is declared unconstitutional (when the

Supreme Court in Brown vs. Board of Education rules the "separate but equal" is not equal) and trouble begins to pop up all over the deep south in buses, stores, schools, colleges and universities. President Eisenhower* sends federal troops to Little Rock during the segregation crisis there to protect black students. The country is also absorbed in the House Unamerican Committee Hearing being run by a senator from Wisconsin, Joseph McCarthy*. These will come to be called a witch-hunt and will really decimate the radio and the movie industries, creating an infamous "blacklist" that prevents all kinds of people in these industries from working for many years. These hearings are televised from April 22nd through June 17th this year and are high on the ratings list as most widely watched. Finally the whole thing infuriates the rest of the Senate and in December McCarthy* is condemned by Senate. The damage this whole affair causes will last for many years. The building and manufacturing boom at the end of the war is over and unemployment soars to 2,893,000, twice the 1953 figure. What with all those fears about USSR (or China) attacking North America, Canada and the United States plan to set up a ring of radar sites facing the north pole. Construction of this DEW (Distant Early Warning) line is announced.

In Egypt Nasser* becomes premier. He will proceed to institute far-reaching land reforms and economic and social development programs, bringing Egypt into the mainstream of modern nations. One of his main projects is to build a dam on the Nile River at Aswan, to control the flooding and generate electricity. Getting international financing for this project will make enemies and threaten to destroy prominent archelogical treasures.

In Indochina, the fight to keep their colony ends with the crushing defeat of the French forces at Dien Bien Phu. Losing the war in Indochina, and having been tossed out of the Levant, France starts disengagement from her African colonies. All, that is, except Algeria. France incorporates Algeria into metropolitan France. The Algerians think this is ridiculous and object rather strenuously. This year the Algerian war of independence begins. The conflict will be long and bloody. It will also tear apart the political fabric in France, making political dissension the normal French way of operating.

Meanwhile, after the French defeat in Indochina there is a conference in Geneva and Vietnam is divided into North and South Vietnam. This is followed rapidly by war breaking out in South Vietnam as the communist-led Viet Cong (urged on by the North Vietnam government) try to overthrow the South Vietnamese government. This is the start of the Vietnam War* which is technically a civil war between elements in the south. It will, eventually, involve all the other countries in the area, as well as others from the "West."

The whole Indochina mess is very upsetting to the West and a number of concerned nations with interests in this part of the world (Australia, New Zealand, France, Great Britain, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand and the U.S). form the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization* (SEATO). SEATO is supposed to do for this part of the world what NATO is doing in Europe, oppose Communist advances in the area and provide for mutual defense. The rationale for having such an organization as this is the domino theory*. This view holds that if one country becomes Communist, others in that part of the world will more than likely follow, like a line of dominoes that are tipped over. This domino analogy is applied to Southeast Asia this year by President Eisenhower*. Everybody in the West will be hearing a lot about this analogy over the next thirty years.

Theatre France - Henry de Montherlant*'s third major play, Port-Royal*, is produced this year.

Ionesco* comes out with another absurdist play, Amede‚*. Britain - Brendan Behan*'s first play, The Quare Fellow* is produced in English this year in

Dublin (it was done in Gaelic first). It will be produced in London (at the Theatre Workshop* by Joan Littlewood* in 1956) and in New York (in 1958). Christopher Fry*'s The Dark Is Light Enough* doesn't have as great a success as his earlier plays and he will do some translations for a while.

East Germany - The Berliner Enselble* performs in Paris this year and next. These performances make the company internationally famous and it is considered one of the finest troupes in the world. *They do The Caucasian Chalk Circle* at this time.

Internationally - The ITI* sponsors an annual festival, the Th‚ƒtre des Nations* . The United States - Thorton Wilder* rewrites an earlier play (The Merchant of Yonkers*,

based on a still earlier German play) into The Matchmaker* and it becomes a real success this year at the Edinburgh Festival, then London, and next year in New York. [Later (1964) it will

be made into a musical, Hello, Dolly!*] Nina Vance*'s Alley Theatre* in Houston becomes fully professional this year and joins the select few regional professional theatres (the others being the Arena Stage* in Washington, D.C. and the Cleveland Play House*). In New York City, Joseph Papp* (1922-1992) launches the New York Shakespeare Festival*. In San Diego, California, the amateur productions of the Shakespeare festival, performed in the Old Globe* (designed by Thomas Wood Stevens for the 1935-6 California Pacific International Exposition and later moved to Balboa Park) are enhanced by the use of college actors and technicians drawn from around the country.

1955 Society This year the United States enjoys full employment and peak production. It's definitely boom

times. Consumer goods are being produced in abundance. 9.3 million motor vehicles are sold this year. The civil rights movement takes an economic turn. When Rosa Parks* refuses to sit in the back of the bus in Montgomery, Alabama (where the law says she must sit) this starts a boycott of the bus system by Afro-Americans. The non-violent methods (boycotts, sit-ins, etc). demonstrated by Ghandi* (in his struggle to get an independent India) are adopted by the civil rights movement with great effectiveness. Those who oppose them, however, are quite willing to use violence.

In Europe the Soviets counter the organization of NATO with the Warsaw Treaty Organization which brings together the Eastern Bloc nations in a mutual defense system led by the Soviets. In the USSR Malenkov* is out and Nikita Khruschev* is in. "Peaceful coexistence" continues to be the Soviet line. At home, and throughout the sphere of Soviet influence, "de-Stalinization" and moderation is the way to go and millions of political prisoners get amnesty and return to the mainstream of Soviet society. That self-rule agitation on the island of Cyprus erupts into violence, actually a sort of civil war. Not only do the islanders want the British out, the Greek Cypriots want union with Greece and the Turkish

Cypriots want a partition of the island so they can govern their part differently. The whole thing won't be settled, even temporarily, until 1959. It keeps everybody around that part of the Mediterranean very edgy.

The new African states created through decolonization mostly share socialist ideologies. This year they get together at a conference at Bandung to try to create an Afro-Asian bloc. However, western economic influence and political ties with the United States continue to be strong. The kind of thing that gets accomplished is the Baghdad Pact* (Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Great Britain).

In Egypt, the premier, Nasser*, announces plans to construct a project four miles south of Aswƒn It will be known as the Aswƒn High Dam and will make a huge lake, add over two million acres for cultivation (through added irrigation) and generate up to 10 billion kilowatt hours of electricity. Obviously this will cost a chunk of money. Egypt plans to come up with two thirds (through local and foreign money) and needs about one-third from foreign loans. Great Britain, the United States and the World Bank plan to do this funding.

In Palestine one of those Arab-Israeli "incidents" occurs in Gaza and we have the beginning of the sticky "Gaza strip."

In Iran there is a US backed coup in August and the Mossadegh government (the one that nationalized the Brits oil industry back in '51) is overthrown.

In South America a coup overthrows Juan Peron* in Argentina. In Indochina Premier Ngo Dinh Diem proclaims South Viet Nam a republic (despite the

Geneva agreement that everybody over here is supposed to hold elections and unite the country in 1956). Of course, the United States will increase their aid to this "republic" fighting the communists to their north.

Theatre Britain - Christopher Fry* has great success with two translations this year. He does

Anouilh*'s L'Alouette*, about Joan of Arc, as The Lark* and Jean Giraudoux*' La Guerre de Troie n'aura pas lieu* as Tiger at the Gates*

In the United States - Tennessee Williams* comes out with one of his most enduring plays, Cat on a Hot Tin Roof* and takes home the Pulitzer* prize for it. The plot is set in a decaying, but affluent, rural southern family, where the major characters are protesting against the "mendacity" of the system they live in. The memorable "Maggie, the cat" of the title is endlessly sexual, while her husband, Brick, is denying his real sexual preference (which is not for Maggie). Brick's father is equally busy denying his imminent demise from cancer and the family vultures, the "no-neck monsters" and their parents hover around full of the hated "mendacity." This play is tremendously successful on Broadway, the road, and in a film. Another summer festival starts up this year. This one is an American Shakespeare Festival at Stratford, Connecticut. It will run a fifteen-week season of plays for a couple of decades.

1956 Society

This year President Eisenhower* is reelected. This makes him the first Republican to win reelection since 1900. On the medical front, this is the year the Salk antipolio vaccine becomes available and this dread disease is slowly eradicated.

In Egypt, Nasser* becomes the president. The political climate and uncertainty over the economic state of the country upsets the Anglo-American and World Bank offer to help finance the Egyptian Aswƒn High Dam. After this deal is canceled, Nasser* confiscates the Suez canal in an effort to make more money and to raise his country from the last vestiges of colonial bondage. Nasser* nationalizes the Suez Canal. This goes over like a lead balloon with Great Britain (who has owned it ever since they bought it from the French,) the French (who regard this as a dangerous example that other North African colonial territories might follow,) and Israel (who figure the Arab Egyptians won't let the Israelis transport through the canal). There is a short and ineffective invasion by Britain, France and Israel in an attempt to regain control. The British and French get together secretly with the Israelis. Israel jumps on the Egyptian armies in the Sinai and drives them back toward the canal while the French and British forces attack the Egyptians on the Canal and capture it. They figure this solves the canal problem. Unfortunately for them, they are wrong. In October a U.N. Emergency Force replaces them. The United Nations, led by Dulles (U.S). and supported by the Russians, condemns the invasion and the British and French slink out of Egypt. The tide of world opinion is against the colonial powers and nobody supports them. The canal is now owned by the Egyptians, but everybody has the right to use it. It becomes obvious that, only when the two super powers (Russia and America) permit it, can major military interventions take place.

What with all that Soviet "de-Stalinization" and moderation, there is a climate of hope in Eastern Europe and this is dangerous. There are demonstrations in Poland and Hungary and the Hungarians have a popular revolt. They try to establish a democratic government. However, after a little vacillation, the Soviet Union sends in their army, with lots of tanks, and nips the revolution in the bud (killing some 2,000 and sending another 200,000 scurrying off into exile). The Hungarian Premier (Imre Nagy*) is arrested and later executed. So much for the reform movement. Everybody in the western bloc is appalled and gets very fussy about this but can't think of any effective action to take, short of dropping that dreaded bomb. This is one of those frustrating events that makes Americans feel guilty for not doing something, when, in fact, there is nothing that can be done, short of starting the Third World War. "De- Stalinization" and moderation is also straining Russia's relations with China, where Mao Zedong* is busy developing his own Stalin-like personality cult. He also resents the decline in Soviet help developing atomic weapons, but the USSR is vary wary of creating a Chinese monster.

Theatre United States - The off-Broadway* theatre, Circle in the Square*, presents Jose Quintero*'s

production of O'Neill*'s The Iceman Cometh* to rave reviews. The Actors Studio* adds a program designed to help playwrights. Off-Broadway* the innovative American director, Alan Schneider* (1917-84) does the first American production of Waiting for Godot*, (by Beckett*) starring Bert Lahr* (1895-1967, internationally famous for his film performance as the Cowardly Lion). This is a bonanza year for musical comedy. The successful list includes Lerner* and Loewe*'s My Fair Lady*; Loesser*'s Most Happy Fella* and Leonard Bernstein* 's Candide*. Also, Leonard Bernstein*, with lyricist Stephen Sondheim*and book writer Arthur Laurents*, create the exceptionally successful adaptation of Romeo and Juliet* in a contemporary American situation, West Side Story*. Here the dance sequences of Jerome

Robbins* become the main element that advances the plot. The fight between the rival gangs is a stunning use of dance. The Pulitzer* prize this year goes to The Diary of Anne Frank* by Frances Goodrich* and Albert Hackett*. This poignant play about hiding from the Nazis will become a prennial favorite.

France - Genet* begins to gain an international reputation with Roger Blin*'s production this year of Genet*'s play The Balcony*.

Swiss - Although he has been writing for the theatre since 1947, Friedrich D• errenmatt* (1921- ) has his first international success, The Visit*, this year in that theatrical center of Zurich. Zurich has been a haven for people escaping the war and developed as quite a theatrical center for a while. D• errenmatt* writes about moral questions and how people are corrupted by power and wealth.

Britain - A new company joins the Old Vic, The Stratford Company and the Theatre Workshop this year. The English Stage Company* is formed with the main objectives of presenting plays by young and experimental authors and producing the best contemporary plays from abroad. Under the artistic direction of George Devine* the company takes over the Royal Court Theatre* in Sloane Square. This new company will play a vitally important part in promoting the works of such authors as Osborne*, Wesker* and Arden*. It will become the most exciting theatre in London. The successful production this year of John Osborne*'s Look Back In Anger* is a turning point in the post war British theatre, not because of its form but because of its content. It catches the mood of the times. It's "angry young man" hero is rude, eloquent and working-class. This is a radical change in the usual British West End play and finally, after almost a decade, brings the "Stanley" type character (of Williams* Streetcar Named Desire*) into the British theatre. Kitchen-sink realism is on the rise in Britain. This year sees Brendan Behan*'s first play, The Quare Fellow* produced in London at the Theatre Workshop* by Joan Littlewood*.

1957 Society On October 4th the Soviets launch first earth satellite, the Sputnik I. This makes the US very

annoyed and the government creates the National Defense Education Act to funnel lots more money into science education. The propaganda value is even greater than the evidence of scientific achievement. "Dynamic communism" is touted as superior to "decadent capitalism". Khruschev* enthusiastically threatens to "rain down rocket-borne destruction" whenever he doesn't get his way with the U.S. There is a lot of criticism about the "missle-gap" (which, as it turns out, doesn't exist, but everybody believes it does).

What with all that tension in Middle East, the United States comes up with the Eisenhower Doctrine [which offers protection to any Middle Eastern country seeking aid against communist aggression.] This will become a popular way for countries to take advantage of U.S. aid and military assistance. Soon you won't even have to be a Middle Eastern country to take advantage of this offer. Meanwhile, back home, factory workers average $82.99 a week. In the expanding communication business the first nationally televised videotaped TV is broadcast. There are now a growing number of Beatniks* as defined by Jack Kerouac* (On The Road*) and others who are beginning to reject current American conformity [see Riesman's Lonely Crowd*]

In Europe the European Economic Community is being formed to advance European economic integration.

Theatre Britain - Harold Pinter* (1930- ) has his first play The Room* done at Bristol University. His

work arouses little interest at the time even though The Birthday Party* (1958) will have a short run in London. He won't become widely known until the next decade. Graham Greene* (1904- ) is primarily a novelist but after dramatizing two of his novels he began to write for the stage in 1953. This year he comes out with The Potting Shed*. It will be the best known of his stage pieces. Osborne*'s The Entertainer* stars Laurence Olivier* and deals with England's decline in vigor and values as seen in three generations of the Rice family entertainers.

France - Ionesco* writes another absurdist play, The New Tenant* and Samuel Beckett*'s Endgame* is staged by Blin*.

Czechoslovakia - The Prague Institute of Scenography is founded this year and the technical devices developed over years of experimentation by Josef Svoboda* come together in technology and design. Next year at the Brussels World Fair, several of Svoboda*'s design forms will be seen by an international audience (the Laterna Magica). He will have immense influence all over Europe and America and will run around designing for plays and operas.

The United States - In New York City, Joseph Papp*'s New York Shakespeare Festival* starts giving free performances every summer in Central Park. Another playwright whose work was successful in the 30s, William Saroyan* (1908-81,) recaptures some of his earlier vigor in a new play, The Cave Dwellers *. The Pulitzer* prize this year goes to a pothmusly produced play of Eugene O'Neill*, Long Day's Journey Into Night*.

1958 Society The first US earth satellite goes into orbit this year. It's only a simple device for bouncing

radio waves off of (Explorer 1, called echo) but all over the country people are watching the skies to catch a glimpse of its brightness passing over.

In Europe the Common Market, officially the EEC (European Economic Community) is up and running. The European Atomic Energy Community is also founded this year to foster common development of Europe's nuclear energy resources nuclear research and development. This is essentially economic in nature and has wide powers to set safety standards, operating nuclear reactors and research centers.

The Egyptian president, Nasser*, is trying to get the Arab countries to get together (like the Europeans are doing) to further their special interests. This year Syria and Egypt form a political union called the United Arab Republic * with Nasser* as president. This organization get together with Northern Yemen to form a federation called The United Arab States*. The plan is to convince all Arab states to join for their mutual benefit. Unfortunately they have more issues that divide them than that unite them and it doesn't happen.

The Algerian mess reaches the point of threatened civil war and DeGaulle comes out of retirement this year (and stays until he will lose a referendum in 1969) to assist in the establishment of the Fifth Republic and become its president. He gradually accustoms the electorate to the prospect of independence for the colonies and in 1962 Algeria will leave the empire. He frees virtually the whole rest of the empire. Meanwhile, this year France establishes the French Community* to replace the French Union (which didn't work). It's supposed to create a political federation for France and her overseas department and territories. Unfortunately, all these will choose to be totally independent so it will have no political function.

In China there is the "Great Leap Forward" effort which is supposed to increase the pace of development. Since it relies on labor and does not include investment, the whole four-year effort doesn't accomplish anything much.

Theatre Britain - Christopher Fry*'s translation of Giraudoux*' Pour LucrŠce* as Duel of Angels*

comes out this year but it won't appear on Broadway until 1960. The trend in Britain toward the "kitchen-sink" realism is taking interest away from poetic drama and T. S Eliot*'s The Elder Statesman* does not do as well as his earlier works.

New Plays and playwrights this year include Arnold Wesker* (1932- ,) who has his first play Chicken Soup With Barley*, produced in Coventry and transferred to London. Peter Shaffer* (1926- )'s first play Five Finger Exercise* is directed by Gielgud* and has a great success in London (but will go on to New York next year. At the Theatre Workshop* Joan Littlewood* is busy bringing out Shelagh Delaney* 's play, A Taste of Honey*. Brendan Behan*'s second play, The Hostage* is produced in English this year in Dublin (it was done in Gaelic last year). It will be produced in London (at the Theatre Workshop* by Joan Littlewood* in 1959) and in New York (in 1961).

The United States - Television is growing by leaps and bound. In the last ten years the number of stations has grown from 48 to 512 and the number of television sets is now over 50 million. Edward Albee* (1928- ) writes his first play, The Zoo Story*. It will be produced in Berlin next year and won't be see in America until 1960. Meanwhile, off-Broadway isn't enough to serve the theatrical needs of New York and this year marks the beginning of "off-off- Broadway*" with the use of Joe Cino's Caf‚ Cino* as an art center. These "fringe" theatres are often eating establishments that provide performance space on occasion. However, they will grow in number and in influence during the next decade. Out in San Diego the Shakespeare festival, performed in the Old Globe* in Balboa Park is upgraded by the use of professional actors in leading roles together with the college actors and technicians drawn from around the country.

Swiss - Max Frisch* (1911- ) writes Biedermann and the Firebugs* this year also in that theatrical center of Zurich. Frisch* writes about guilt and rationalization of the characters for their actions.

Italy - One of the best-known directors, Franco Zeffirelli* (1923- ,) is invited to direct abroad. He will work internationally from here on out. Most of the artistic effort in Italy is devoted to film where the Italian neorealism of this decade is making an international mark.

1959 Society This year the United States decides to add two more stars to the flag and on January third

Alaska is admitted to the union as 49th state. On the 21st of August Hawaii is admitted as the 50th state. The last Civil War veteran dies on December 19 at the age of 117

Latin America - There is a revolution in Cuba (where the guerrilla campaigns have been going on for two years) and the Batista, U.S. backed, dictatorship is overthrown by the communist dictatorship of Fidel Castro*, backed by the Soviet Union. Refugees flee to Florida and many get to work planning a counter-revolution.

In France, General de Gaulle* makes some reforms through his minster of culture in the theatrical scene. French West Africa is dissolved this year and the territories that made it up move toward independence.

In the Mediterranean there is a "settlement" of the Cyprus mess, providing neither union nor partition, but independence from the British in 1960. It won't settle much, but at least the British will be out of the loop.

Theatre In France the absurdist have a banner year. Genet* comes out with The Blacks* and Ionesco*

produces The Killer*. The new minister of culture, Andre Malraux*, founds some new dramatic centers and promotes regional cultural centers with fifty percent funding for them. All this in addition to subsidizing promising new dramatists and companies. This financial security and abundance enables all kinds of experimentation in the French theatre that isn't financially possible in the United States, but corporate America is about to help level the playing field.

In Britain there is a promising new playwright, John Arden* (1930- ,) who will be compared with Brecht because of his preoccupation with moral and social problems. His best known work, Serjeant Musgrave's Dance* (an anti-military work), comes out this year. It's a failure right now but it will be done a lot later (New York 1966). After 1967 he'll collaborate with his wife, Margaretta D'Arcy*.

In the United States - Little theater gets a boost from big business. The Ford Foundation* has

a new director who will make helping theatre a priority. This year the Foundation makes sizeable grants to a number of small companies including the Arena Stage*, the Alley Theatre* and the Actors' Workshop*. Now it's possible for these to continue as fully professional theaters. Out west, the political theatrical group, San Francisco Mime Troupe*, forms under R. G. Davis*. These people are into doing adaptations of commedia dell'arte* scenarios, free in the parks of San Francisco, for people who don't normally come to the theatre. The Afro-American experience finally appears on stage in a classic play by Lorraine Hansberry*, Raisin In The Sun*. This is a forerunner of the surge in Afro-American theatre productions and plays coming up soon. The Pulitzer* prize goes to an interesting poetic telling of the Biblical story of Job, J. B.* by Arichbald MacLeish* with striking sets by Boris Aronson*. A forerunner of the 60s shows up when the collective theatre group, the Living Theatre*, led by Judith Malina* (1926- ) and Julian Beck* (1925-1985) produce Jack

Gelber*'s The Connection*. This group has been fumbling around with poetic and nonrealistic production techniques since their founding in 1946. Lately they have bee influenced by the ideas of Artaud* and Brecht* and this production marks a turning point in their work. They will win a number of awards in New York with this now and later at the Th‚ƒtre des Nations* in Paris. We'll hear more about this group as time goes by. Edward Albee* writes The Death of Bessie Smith* this year. Like his first work, it will be produced abroad before it is seen in this country. His day will come in the early sixties. Tennessee Williams*' Sweet Bird of Youth* comes out this year. The talk of Broadway this year is the musical The Sound of Music* by Rogers and Hammerstein*.

Afterword Theatrically, the 50s have been full of experimentation reflecting the lower middle-class

realities of the postwar world in the kitchen-sink realism and the anxieties about the atomic age and the rush to social conformity in the absurdist movement. Production groups are becoming more diverse and spread around outside the big theatrical centers of London, Paris and New York. Those who fought the Second World War and the civilians who lived through it have had fifteen years to put their lives in order, make babies and try to bring some sense out of their life experiences. Now the "baby-boomers," the children born since the war, are beginning to grow up. The next decade will be full of wrenching social changes and the soothing stability of the classic musical comedies.

go to chap20 or back to PART IV Introduction or Theatre History or go to Home CHAPTER TWENTY The 60s

The American Musical Comes of Age and So Does Social Protest Introduction All over the world there is social unrest. The communist and totalitarian societies react with

repression and tanks in the street. The western democracies react as best they can, usually with police in the streets. Much of the unrest seems to grow out of the emphasis given human rights ever since the end of the world war. No one can figure out exactly how to define what "human rights" ought to be, not to mention how any society can maintain a stable social order, requiring social regulations and still ensure the priority of these "human rights". What happens is that both sides, the state and the human rights advocates, keep fighting each other.

Meanwhile the space race is on with the Soviets off to a running start followed closely by the United States. France will be working to get into the game very soon. Meanwhile there are longer and longer flights in orbit, unmanned trips to Mars, Venus and Mercury, and the American venture which lands astronauts on the moon. The space age is definitely here and the technological spin-off it generates will spawn new industries all over the place.

While the third world is busy trying to catch up by building larger and larger cities, the whole concept of the industrialized city is beginning to change. The rapid increase in communications and transportation is encouraging business and workers to move out of the city. This throws the metropolitan areas into increasing economic crisis as their financial base slips slowly away, taking the higher paying jobs with it. Poverty, lower paying service jobs and increasingly expensive maintenance needs create an ever-greater financial crunch for the developed world's cities.

The "Eastern Bloc" has a real problem keeping its citizens from fleeing to the west so they build the Berlin wall to keep them in.

In the world of art, abstract is now mainstream. Jackson Pollock* (known by the media as "Jack the Dripper") becomes popular as does Roy Lichtenstein*'s comic strip style. The experimental dance works of Merce Cunningham*, often performed to even more experimental musical pieces of John Cage* provided the same abstract search for meaning as the theatrical absurdists. Popular music is becoming more and more concerned with making social statements and voicing political dissent. The exception to all this social protest is a grpup of four guys who get together and begin making music in Liverpool (England) and rapidly go on to conquer the world. These are, of course, the Beatles*, who, by the middle of the decade, are known for a "hard day's night."

World Events In the United States, it is a decade of assassinations, civil rights legislation, protest against

military involvement in Vietnam, social and sexual revolution. There are an increasing number of violent and not-so-violent groups working for social change, from the "Black Panthers" and the "Weathermen," through the Student for Democratic Action (SDA). This is the time of the "flower children," the "hippies," draft card burning, flight to Canada to escape the draft (by "underground rail-road",) the increasing opposition to the Viet Nam conflict (including soldiers "fragging" (demolishing them with fragmentation grenades) their officers in their bivouacs. In Africa countries are becoming independent from their former colonial masters. Kenya in '63, Zanzibar (which then unites with Tanganyika to become Tanzania,) Zambia, Malawi, Kenya and the Congo People's Republic in '64, Gambia in '65. Cyprus becomes independent from the U.K. in '60 and then violence breaks out between the Greek and Turkish elements. In '64 the U.N. will try to calm things down (with little success). One of the commercial problems in the independence of all these various places around the world is that most of the countries expropriate industries, mining operations, etc. and nationalize them. The international investment community becomes much more wary of putting money into "unstable" countries. "Unstable" means that you can't be sure who will be running the country next month and whether you will be able to do business with them or not.

Theatre Events In the United States the musical blossoms and is exported around the world. Off-Broadway

theatres no longer devote themselves to classics. Instead, they start doing single productions that appeal to a limited audience, or, they show-case new plays that are not commercial enough to appeal to Broadway producers. The dominant movements in the 60s show up off- off-Broadway* . This designation refers to performances held in cafes, lofts, garages, churches and any available, cheap, small space. Elaborate staging is out and intimate actor- audience relation is in. Some of the prominent groups engaged in this activity are Theatre

Genesis*, Caf‚ Cino*, Caf‚ La Mama*, American Place Theatre*. Minority theatre (Afro- American, Latino, special interest subject matter reflecting the life experience of those who are not white, male, Anglo-saxon, protestants) is growing and developing in these production spaces. The Living Theatre* is very busy in the 60s searching for new and different theatrical forms and pushing political discussion. until real life on the streets overtakes their political ideas and they begin to fade.

The new British theatre flowers in two major companies, a new theatre building and internationally acclaimed directors who then travel abroad to direct.

Theatre is busy reflecting the social unrest and the changes in social mores. One of the ways art deals with society is in a new form called "happenings"*. Allan Kaprow*, painter and art historian, in 1959 publishes an outline for an artistic event he labels a "happening." Last year

he gave the first public showing of one of these, entitled 18 Happenings in 6 Parts*. The audience becomes part of the art work by following instructions and interacting with the artistic environment. The term "happenings"* will come to refer to all sorts of artistic events where improvisation is a central feature and the audience is actively included in the work. These are all multimedia* events designed to break down any barriers between the various arts.

1960 Society The United States has to admit that it is flying spy missions (in the U-2) over the Soviet

Union when the Soviets shoot down one of them, piloted by Francis Gary Powers. This is politically embarrassing and Powers is imprisoned in Russia. There are "summit" meetings, this year Khrushchev (the Soviet Union,) Macmillian (Great Britain,) Eisenhower (the United States) and de Gaulle (France) meet in the fall to hash out differences and play one- upmanship.

One of those Nazis who escaped judgement at Nuremberg is captured, the former Gestapo chief, Adolf Eichman*. He will be tried by Israel for war crimes and crimes against humanity (he was in charge of the "final solution" and the death camps). Films and plays will be written about his trial. Germany bans Neo-Nazi political groups.

In the United States it's election time and television plays a really big role now. The debates on TV between Richard Nixon* (Republican) and John Kennedy* (Democrat) will become historic. Kennedy* wins the election and becomes the first Roman Catholic to be elected to the presidency. By this time U.S. subsidies make up 75 percent of South Viet Nam's budget. The US population stands at 179,323,000 and there are 85 million television sets (there are

10.5 million in Britain, 1.5 in France and 2 million in West Germany). The satellite business is getting under way and the United States launches its first weather

satellite (Trios I) this year. One of the first signs of change in the role of women can be seen this year when three women

are admitted to the ministry of the Swedish Lutheran Church. Theatre

In France - Absurdism* is alive and well as what will become Eug‚ne Ionesco*'s most famous play, Rhinoceros*, is produced.

In Great Britain - Robert Bolt* comes out with a popular play A Man For All Seasons*. It is about the historical English figure, Sir Thomas More, and deals with the importance of standing by your principles. It will be made into several movie versions. Terence Rattigan* comes out with his play, Ross*.

The United States - Edward Albee*'s (1928- ) first play, The Zoo Story*, is finally produced in America this year. In theatre architecture, the Loeb Theatre* at Harvard University opens this year. It is a partial realization of the theatre design of George Izenour* which features flexible stage floor level, seating modules that move into proscenium, thrust or round audience arrangements, and, computer-controlled rigging and lighting. This is the year of musicals that will become classic. Camelot* based on the book (The Once and Future King*) by White*, with music by Lowe* and lyrics by Lerner* opens on Broadway to magnificent success. A lighter and more topical show, Bye Bye Birdie*, with music by C. Strouse* and lyrics by Lee Adams*, will be revived frequently as a recurring American phenomena.

1961 Society In the United States J. F. Kennedy* (1961-63) is inaugurated as the 35th (and youngest)

president. The US severs diplomatic relations with Cuba on January 3rd. In April there is an abortive attempt by Cubans who fled the Castro revolution (based in Florida and assisted by the CIA) to retake their country. It will be known as the Bay of Pigs, since that is where they land in Cuba. Everybody (the U.S., Cuba, the Cubans in America, etc.) is unhappy about this escapade. Cuba, particularly, is nervous and turns to the Soviet Union for help and protection. This will lead to an international crisis in the near future. The U.S. Senate takes a good look at the reactionary John Birch Society

Meanwhile things are getting tense in Europe and the Eastern Bloc is having trouble keeping its citizens from leaving home and moving to the west. In August East Germany begins to build the "wall" which will soon make a concrete "iron curtain" between the Soviet dominated part of Germany and the rest.

Adolf Eichman* is found guilty in his trial held in Jerusalem. Theatre In France there is also political and protest theatre going on. In the early 60s in Paris, the

Th‚ƒtre de le Commune* is busy using Brechtian production techniques to put on plays by Brecht* and Peter Weiss* (1916-82) with public discussion groups, lectures, readings and such like to get audience response to the theatre piece.

Britain - Harold Pinter* (1930- ) has his play, The Caretaker*, produced in London this year and next year in New York. Finally, with this play, he begins to gain some prominence. Pinter* is probably the most influential of the modern English playwrights. The motives of his characters are often obscure, their background indefinite and their fate at the end of the play indeterminate. His plots are about everyday situations but they are filled with menace, Britain - Harold Pinter* (1930- ) has his play, The Caretaker*, produced in London this year and next year in New York. Finally, with this play, he begins to gain some prominence. Pinter* is probably the most influential of the modern English playwrights. The motives of his characters are often obscure, their background indefinite and their fate at the end of the play indeterminate. His plots are about everyday situations but they are filled with menace,

In the United States - Neil Simon* begins writing. In New York City Ellen Stewart opens the Caf‚ La Mama* in the basement under an Italian restaurant. New and uncommercial plays are presented here for a week's run. Based in New Hampshire, Peter Schumann*'s Bread and Puppet Theatre* is concerned with trying to give a sense of ritual through their use of giant puppets, dance, processions and symbolic imagery. This group does productions that are very gentle (compared with other social action groups) and usually end by sharing bread with the audience in a gesture of community. The memborable musical this year is How to Succeed in Business Without Really Trying*, based on Mead's novel, with music and lyrics by Frank Loesser* (1910-).

1962 Society The United States establishes a U.S. military council in South Viet Nam. In October there is

the Cuban Missile Crisis. This is when the U.S.S.R. installs missile bases in Cuba and the U.S. insists they be withdrawn. It's a pretty tense time but both sides (the Soviets and U.S.) are reasonable and take things slowly. This will lead to the establishment of the "hot line" in a couple years. The missile bases are dismantled in return for U.S. taking out some Turkish bases and assuring Cuba we won't invade. Meanwhile, a Soviet spy is traded for the U-2 pilot, Gary Powers, and he gets to come home. Some people are annoyed that he didn't commit suicide when captured.

The visibility of the civil rights struggle is raised a notch when the Governor of Mississippi denies admission to the University to the Afro-American, James Meredith. A federal court finds the governor in contempt and the feds send in marshals and 3,000 soldiers to contain the riots when Meredith arrives on campus to start classes.

In Jerusalem, Adolf Eichman* is hanged. Western society begins to notice that not all scientific advances are unmixed blessings. The

drug, thalidomide, turns out to cause severe malformations in children born to mothers who took it while pregnant. There is a big stink in Europe and America over this. But science marches on and this year there is a Nobel Prize awarded to some Brits and an American for determining the molecular structure of DNA.

Theatre In the United States, Martin Esslin* publishes his book, The Absurd Theatre* and Edward

Albee* comes out with his full-length, more realistic play, Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?*.

This one catches everybody's attention and makes the upcoming (1964) book Games People Play* by psychologist Dr. Eric Berne* a popular best seller. Soon everybody is up on transactional analysis*, and "I'm OK, You're OK" becomes a good way to start a conversation. Arthur Kopit* comes out with his satiric, sort-of absurd, Oh Dad, Poor Dad, Mamma's Hung You in the Closet and I'm Feeling So Sad*. [You will notice that play titles are becoming too long to fit on a theatre marquee.] Mental illness is becoming a serious topic for drama and Ken Kesey* writes One Flew Over the Cuckoo's Nest*. The city of New York builds the Delacorte Theatre* in Central Park for Joseph Papp*'s New York Shakespeare Festival* productions. It opens this year with Joseph Papp* directing The Merchant of Venice*. This theatre will become enormously successful, attracting top Broadway stars to perform for city audiences who attend free of charge. The musical fits right in with all the excitment about a new president. Mr. President* is based on a book by Lindsay* and Crouse*, with music by Irving Berlin*.

In Britain the originally chartered National Theatre* company is created out of the Old Vic* under the direction of Sir Laurence Olivier* (he has been knighted for his theatrical work). Meanwhile the Royal Shakespeare Company*, under the direction of Peter Hall* is expanding this season. It is now the largest theatre company in the world with 24 productions. This year it makes theatre history with Peter Brook*'s production of King Lear*.

In Brazil, the Teatro de Arena* begins to produce more classics, interpreting them in ways they shed light on Brazilian situations. They are beginning to develop a unique theatrical form (similar to the American Living Newspaper* of the Federal Theatre Project). This "Arena Contra..." theatre is openly didactic, urging the audience to take some specific action. Their plays tour easily and this group goes to small villages and remote locations as one of the most effective education tools in the country.

Movies - There is international mourning this year when Marilyn Monroe* dies. Her death will show up in plays (see below in 1964) and movies later on as her cult continues. The big hits of the year are Cleopatra* (with Richard Burton* and Elizabeth Taylor*, who both perform on stage as well as in the movies,) Lawrence of Arabia* and The Manchurian Candidate*.

1963 Society In the United States we begin to be aware of a "credibility gap" between the truth and official

government reports of events in Cuba, Viet Nam, etc. The public is starting to be annoyed about being lied to. Some of the unrest may be due to rising unemployment which is now at

6.1 per cent. The music of the day is sung by Peter, Paul and Mary, Bob Dylan, and Joan Baez and includes such social protest favorites as "Blowin' in the Wind". Civil rights and riots are filling the news. Civil rights demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama lead to riots and beatings of the demonstrators by Whites and police. The mess ends up with the arrest of Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.* and President Kennedy* calls out 3,000 federal troops to quiet things down. In August 200,000 "Freedom Marchers" descend on Washington to demonstrate for civil rights and addressing the crowd, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.* gives his "I have a dream" speech (August 28) at the Lincoln Memorial. The U.S. sends financial and economic aid to the Buddhist-led military coup that overthrows the government of South Viet Nam. This is the year of the first use of an artificial heart.

On November 22nd, in Dallas, Texas, President Kennedy* is assassinated. The entire event dominates television as Vice President Lyndon Baines Johnson* (1963-1969) is sworn into the office of president, the alleged assassin (Lee Harvey Oswald*) is caught and then murdered (on live television) by Jack Ruby.* There is great national and international consternation over the assassination.

In Europe there is a great deal of dickering over whether or not Great Britain will, or can, come into the Common Market and de Gaulle* keeps them out. In Great Britain this is the year of the big scandals among high government officials (Profumo call-girl scandal and Stephen Ward's suicide). On the International scene a nuclear test ban is agreed to by the Soviets, the U.S. and Great Britain. France, of course, doesn't. The Soviets and the U.S. agree on a "hot line" between the White House and the Kremlin (in case they need to talk to each other quickly over misunderstandings). In the arena of Space progress continues as the Soviets put the first woman astronaut into orbit and the U.S. has 22 orbits by Gordon Cooper* in an Atlas rocket.

In The Middle East the United Arab Republic is formed with Syria and Iraq agreeing to Union.

Theatre In Britain there is a landmark production by the Theatre Workshop* under the direction of

Joan Littlewood*. Oh! What a Lovely War* is a hodgepodge of songs, skits, slides and other Brechtian* devices as a pseudo-documentary of the First World War. The intent, and the result, is a satisfying anti-war production. It will be so popular (and influential) that it will be made into a movie (a less usual thing in Britain). Meanwhile the prestigious and innovative Royal Shakespeare Company* is doing a cycle of Shakespeare*'s history plays under the title The War of the Roses*.

The Deputy* by Rolf Hochhuth* places the blame for the German extermination of the Jews on Pope Pius XII's refusal to take a stand against Hitler's policies. This very controversial documentary play is banned in many countries.

The Tragedy of King Christophe*, a play about the problems of French postcolonialism, is written by Aime Cesaire*, a black playwright born in Martinique. The French are impressed by his plays and he will have several more on this same theme produced in the following years.

At the Prague National Theatre in Czechoslovakia, Josef Svoboda* (that terrific, innovative designer) creates a spectacular kinetic space for a production of Romeo and Juliet*. Hanging screens and panels that can move in any direction, platforms and steps on treadmills and hydraulic lifts move on and off stage, raise and lower and change direction so that the space flows with the rhythm of the action. He continues to expand the technological sophistication of stage design.

In the United States this year, the Living Theatre* puts on Kenneth Brown's * The Brig*. The Caf‚ La Mama* opens theatrical productions in a different location off-off-Broadway this year. This will become one of the most influential of the experimental spots in New York. The Open Theatre* group is established this year by Joseph Chaikin* (who used to be with the Living Theatre*) to explore "collective creation" and the relation between live performers In the United States this year, the Living Theatre* puts on Kenneth Brown's * The Brig*. The Caf‚ La Mama* opens theatrical productions in a different location off-off-Broadway this year. This will become one of the most influential of the experimental spots in New York. The Open Theatre* group is established this year by Joseph Chaikin* (who used to be with the Living Theatre*) to explore "collective creation" and the relation between live performers

At the Movies there are films about cardinals (The Cardinal*), Italian history (The Leopard*), sexy English romps in the eighteenth century (Tom Jones*) and the classic British movie, Dr. Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb*. Meanwhile, Alfred Hitchcock* brings out his scary, The Birds*.

1964 Society In the United States under President Johnson* there is a continuing increase in the number of

personel involved in American military advisement in Vietnam. This increase accelerates as time passes. There is an alleged attack on an American destroyer just off shore from Viet Nam. This is used as a reason for the United States to escalate the military action and engage in air strikes against North Viet Nam. There is heavy fighting. In last year's assassination business, Jack Ruby* is found guilty of killing Lee Harvey Oswald* and sentenced to death, but it won't matter, he'll die of cancer next year. The world's longest suspension bridge, the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge, opens to traffic in New York. The United States is busy benefiting from the "Brain-Drain" in which great numbers of British scientists emigrate to this country. This is the year of the massive earthquake in Alaska which severely rearranges the costal scenery and sends tidal waves as far south as the middle of California. The "Twist" is abundantly visible in dancing establishments and many people escape to discotheques where they can watch "go-go" girls set the pace.

Riots are increasingly in the news. This year there are riots in New York's Harlem and many other U.S. Cities against enforcement of those new Civil Rights Laws. But riots aren't confined to social protest, 300 people are killed in Lima, Peru in riots at a soccer match.

In Britain they are busy drilling for oil and gas in the North Sea. They'll find a great deal of it soon. Social changes are evident in two opposing youth trends, the "Mods" and the "Rockers" who have several collisions in the sea-side resorts at Easter.

In Africa last year Keyna became an independent country and this year Zanzibar becomes a republic, unites with Tanganyika to form Tanzania and Northern Rhodesia becomes the independent republic of Zambia.

Theatre In Britain, the German author (resident in Sweden since 1939,) Peter Weiss*, becomes

internationally known through his first play, The Persecution and Assassination of Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the Charenton Asylum under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade*, better known by its short title, Marat/Sade. It is an emotion-charged study of the killing of the French Revolution leader, Jean Paul Marat (in his bath by Charlotte Corday, July 13, 1793,) as enacted by the residents of the insane asylum where the Marquis de Sade

(1740-1814) spent considerable time. [You may recall the terms "sadism" and "sadistic" which derive from this illustrious gentleman, known for his sexual perversions and author of two obscene novels]. The premier production in Britain is directed by Peter Brook* and produced by the Royal Shakespeare Company*. This rapidly becomes a landmark event in theatrical circles and is internationally acclaimed. Pinter* writes The Homecoming*. John Osborne* writes Inadmissible Evidence*. Peter Shaffer* continues to produce successful plays. This year it is the drama of the Spanish conquest in The Royal Hunt of the Sun*

In the United States, Arthur Miller* comes out with a searching drama about responsibility in relation to the "Holocaust," Incident at Vichy*. He also does After the Fall*, another play about personal responsibility that includes some rather autobiographical scenes about a character who seems to be Marilyn Monroe*. Both plays will be popular and widely done.

The Living Theatre* exhibits Mysteries and Smaller Pieces*. This is one of the radically new forms of theatre developed in response to the post-World War II world. The idea is to go outside the traditional patterns and find new ways that will enable society to construct a better world. They get evicted from their theatre by the Internal Revenue Service and the group picks up and moves, lock, stock and families to the coast of Belgium. This year the Caf‚ La Mama* gets its own space and a permanent company under the direction of Tom O'Horgan* and changes its name to the La Mama Experimental Theatre Club*. The one-act plays of a new author, Sam Shepard*, begin to be produced Off-off-Broadway*, including Cowboys*. Another regional theatre starts up in Louisville, Kentucky, the Actors Theatre* . This one will grow into an internationally renowned center for producing new plays. This year the Black Arts Repertoire Theatre School* starts up in New York.

The popular musical, Fiddler on the Roof*, with book by Sheldon Harnick* and music by Jerry Bock*, opens this season, as does Hello Dolly!*, based on that play of Thorton Wilder*'s (The Matchmaker*,) with book, lyrics and music by Jerry Herman*. The third winner is Funny Girl*, a musical based on the life of Fanny Brice* as told in an original story by J. Lenmart, with music by Jule Stein* (1905-) and lyrics by Bob Merrill*. All three of these shows will be produced, toured and performed all over the world for at least the next thirty years, and, of course, made into immensely popular movies.

Movies this year include Disney's Mary Poppins*, Peter Brook*'s Lord of the Flies*, and the film version of My Fair Lady*.

In France a group of young French students and theatre artists organize the Th‚ƒtre de Soleil* as a theatre collective. They will be very successful in the next decade in the collective creation* type production.

1965 Society In the United States in August, from the 11th through the 16th there are massive riots in the

Watts section of Los Angeles. Twenty thousand National Guardsmen are called out to end the racial riots. Television captures it all and brings it into the world's living rooms. This is the year of the great North American "blackout" when a power failure affects 30 million people in the northeast. Nine months later there is a noticeable increase in the birth rate. There is increasing momentum for anti-pollution legislation on a national scale.

The Soviet and U.S. astronauts are busy doing "space-walks" which test equipment and techniques. "Op" art is the latest rage in the art world. Non-objective optical illusion based on color, form and perspective manipulation. Picasso is still coming out with new paintings and the Beatles are making another movie.

In Africa, Gambia becomes independent. There's a revolution in Algeria and the President is deposed. There is the Rhodesian Unilateral Declaration of Independence.

Theatre In Great Britain the plot of The Killing of Sister George* by Frank Marcus* centers on the

importance of characters in on-going television series to performers in them. Edward Bond* comes out with Saved*, which concerns the roots of horror and violence.

In Germany, Shakespeare* is the most produced author with 24,009 performances of his plays. The German Schiller* is the second most popular, followed by another Englishman, G.

B. Shaw*. In the long run the most important theatrical event of the year will turn out to be taking place

in Poland. A Polish director named Jerzy Grotowski* (1933- ) had begun a small theatre in Opole in 1959, but this year he moves the theatre to the university city of Wroclaw and his company is renamed the Polish Laboratory Theatre*. Grotowski* is interested in the relation between the theatrical text, the actor and the audience and he will pursue innovative acting techniques and unusual staging. Prominent theatre artists in Europe will take notice and soon Grotowski* will travel to lecture and demonstrate his methods. He is possibly the most influential experimenter in teaching acting since Stanislavski* and the Moscow Art Theatre* in the early part of the century. Much of his technique is based on Stanislavski*'s work and many of the central ideas of existentialism. One of his central elements concerns teaching the actor to open himself up (reveal himself) to the audience and the text. In the existential term, the actor has disposibilit‚. He is responsible to others in the company and to the audience. Like many other experimenters of this time, Grotowski* tries to simplify the production and eliminate everything that is not vitally necessary. [see below 1968.]

In the United States ethnic theatre is beginning to spring up and much of it is also protest and political theatre. The Chicano El Teatro Campesino* starts up this year, under the leadership of Luis Valdez* (1940-,) a former member of the San Francisco Mime Troupe* who is reacting to the plight of the Chicano farm workers in California. It is devoted to encouraging and informing Chicano farm workers through performing at union meetings. It will soon leave the union hall. The regional theatre, the Long Wharf Theatre*, starts up in New Haven, Connecticut. It will become one of the most highly regarded resident companies in the country. Doing both classic and modern plays, this company will also do world premiers and send the productions on, with little or no change, to open on Broadway. The Lincoln Center* for the Performing Arts opens this year. It includes an opera house, a large theatre for musicals and dance works, and the legitimate theatre, the Vivian Beaumont*. Frank D. Gilroy* gets the Pulitzer* for his play, The Subject Was Roses*. This is also a good year for musicals. The first is Man of La Mancha*, a musical based on Don Quixote* with music by L. Pockriss* and lyrics by J. Darwin *. The second is On A Clear Day*, with music by Richard Rogers* and Burton Lane * and lyrics by Lerner*. Off-off-Broadway* more Sam Shepard* one-acts, Chicago* and Icarus's Mother*, appear.

1966 Society There are International Days of Protest against U. S. policy in Viet Nam. Miniskirts become

the fashion. American style supermarket retailing spreads around Europe and the Far East. Color TV is getting popular. In northern Italy there are terrible floods which ruin thousands of art treasures in Venice and Florence.

Theatre In the United States this year Joseph Papp* opens the year-round operation of the New York

Shakespeare Festival* by adding the Public Theatre* to the Delacorte Theatre* in Central Park. The Open Theatre* group, under Joseph Chaikin*, produces America Hurrah!* and one of their workshops under Megan Terry* comes out with Viet Rock* which is produced by La Mama Experimental Theatre Club*. This is a busy time for the experimental groups, and, as you can see, they are interconnected. Another regional theatre, Theatre Atlanta* starts up in Georgia. Edward Albee* has a new play, A Delicate Balance*, on Broadway. The Musical Man of La Mancha* continues as the big hit of the year, with music by Mitch Leigh*. It's followed closely by the new opening, Mame* by Jerry Herman*, and Cactus Flower* by Abe Burrows*. The big movies this year include two based on plays, A Man For All Seasons* and Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?*. The first full-length Sam Shepard* play appears, La Turista*.

In Britain Arnold Wesker*'s company, Centre 42, begins performing in the Roundhouse where he will remain until he disbands the company in 1970. Peter Shaffer* comes out with his very successful play, Black Comedy*. An experimental theatre group is started up in London by Mark Long* and others. It is called the People Show* and they are into that "collective creation*" business, building productions on partial scripts supplied by Jeff Nutall* to develop individual creativity among the members. They start out doing productions designed around where they are done. Later they will do shows to tour. They will tour widely through Western Europe and the U.S.

1967 Society The animosity between Israel and the Arab states breaks out in the "Six-Day War" with Israel

taking the Sinai, the old city of Jerusalem, part of Jordon, and advancing into Syria. There is a cease-fire between Syria and Israel but the Arab nations reject the Israeli proposals for negotiations. The Soviets sever diplomatic relations with Israel and Israel declares Jerusalem

a united city under their rule. Things in this part of the world will not get much better. There are riots in various places around the world. In Hong-Kong, 5,000 people riot. In the

United States Afro-Americans riot in Cleveland, Newark (July 12-17) and Detroit (July 23-

30, U.S. paratroopers restore order). Puerto Ricans riot in New York. The American Nazi Party leader G. L. Rockwell is assassinated in Arlington, Virginia. 700.000 people march in New York in support of American military in Viet Nam and 50,000 demonstrate against the Viet Nam War at the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C., Martin Luther King Jr.* leads an anti-Viet Nam war march in New York and another protest march goes on in San

Francisco. Britain is having disagreements with China over the number of communist newspapers in Hong Kong and the Chinese sack and burn the British chancery in Peking

China explodes its first hydrogen bomb, which makes everybody very nervous. Dr. Christiaan N. Bernard performs the first heart transplant operation in Cape Town South Africa. This is very encouraging for the medical community.

The U.S. space program has a setback when three astronauts die in a fire in a space capsule still on the ground.

Theatre In France, Samuel Beckett* is writing Tˆtes mortes*. Great Britain - Tom Stoppard* comes out with his popular play, Rosencrantz and

Guildenstern Are Dead*. In the United States Arthur Miller* comes out with his play, The Price*. The Negro Ensemble

Company* is founded this year. [Afro-Americans are called "negroes" at this time, but many are insisting that they be called "black," as in the "Black Power"* movement which has a conference in New Jersey this year.] Whatever the designation, this company is one of the major ethnic performance groups that will stimulate playwrighting and performance to more realistically reflect the life experiences of this minority. The New Lafayette Company* also starts up this year with its mission of being an exclusively Afro-American theatre. Jules Feiffer* writes Little Murders* this year. Robert Shaw* comes out with one of those plays about Adolf Eichman*'s trial, The Man in the Glass Booth*. Regional theatres starting up this year include the American Conservatory Theatre*, better known as A.C.T., in San Francisco, and the Mark Taper Forum* in Los Angeles. Another New York City theatre group starts up this year. The Performance Group* is founded by Richard Schechner* to experiment with environmental theatre, group processes, actor training techniques and (just like all the others) the audience-performer relationships. This bunch are into "collective creation" [see above]. Their first production will come out next year. This year Joseph Papp* founds another theatre in New York City, the Public Theatre*. In California El Teatro Campesino* separates from the farm worker's union and becomes an independent artistic organization.

This is the year of the rock musical Hair*, by Gerome Ragni* and James Rado* and Galt MacDermott*. It is first directed by Tom O'Horgan* for the off-off-Broadway La Mama Experimental Theatre Club*. This production will go on to open the off-Broadway Public Theatre* on the 17th of October and have a long run (1,750 performances) on Broadway next year at the Biltmore Theatre* [see below].

The traditional musicals of the year are You're A Good Man, Charlie Brown* the musical based on a book by Persson and Whitelaw (which is based on the Peanuts comic strip by Charles Schultz*) with music and lyrics by Clark Gesne*. An equally successful one is Cabaret,* based on Christopher Isherwood's play, I Am a Camera*, about a young American writer in Berlin in the middle 1930s. The music is by J. Masterhoff, J. Kander and F. Ebb. Both musicals will continue to be produced, revived and performed for at least thirty years. Cabaret* will also become a popular film.

In films the last Spencer Tracy, Katherine Hepburn movie, Guess Who's Coming To Dinner*, is finished just before Tracy's death. The Schlesinger production of Taming of the Shrew* with Elizabeth Taylor and Richard Burton is a popular favorite.

1968 Society In the United States, politically this is a very trying year. Because of the opposition to the Viet

Nam War, there are bitterly fought political races. Senator Robert Kennedy* announces that

he will run for president. Then President Johnson* announces that he definitely won't run again. Martin Luther King Jr.* is assassinated on April 4th at a Memphis motel. Scotland Yard arrests James Earl Ray* in London and he is extradited to stand trial for the killing. And, just as Senator Robert Kennedy* wins the democratic primary vote in California on June 5th,

he is assassinated by a Jordanian, Sirhan Sirhan*. The Democratic Convention is held in Chicago with abundant television coverage of the riots, police brutality and political bullying. This national spectacle effectively demolishes public confidence in the party and marks the beginning of the end for old-style political brokering of the conventions of both parties. Richard Nixon* (Republican) promises to end the Viet Nam conflict and is elected the 37th President of the U.S. by the narrowest margin since 1912. Crimes of violence in the United States have increased 57 per cent since 1960. There are now 78 million TV sets in the U.S.,

25 million in the U.S.S.R., 19 million in Britain, 13.5 million in West Germany and 10 million in France. Most of what is shown on these TV sets is produced in the United States. This dominance of the television screen will continue through the end of the century, a reality of technological dominance which infuriates the French and bothers other countries. American television, however, becomes increasingly indebted to the British for high quality productions which are shown mainly on Public Broadcasting Stations. Communication by way of television is increasing by leaps and bounds.

One of the hallmarks of the 60s is the innovative architecture (especially the "geodesic dome") of Buckminster Fuller*. This year he is awarded the Gold Medal by the Royal Institute of British Architects.

There is a big flap about the North Koreans capture of a Navy intelligence ship, the "Pueblo". Her crew is finally released in December.

This year and next a wave of student violence breaks over U.S. in reaction to societal and governmental hypocrisy and policy. Similar riots take place in France this year in May and June.

This year there is a crisis in Czechoslovakia ending with massive arrests and occupation by Soviet and Warsaw-Pact nations' troops. The reforming government of Alexander Dubcek* is thrown out and strict communist party rule imposed.

There is a terrible earthquake in Iran, killing 12,000. In Egypt they finish building the Aswan High Dam and it goes into operation. Theatre

In the United States the Living Theatre* returns from Europe to a world of social upheaval. The audience preference for new and spontaneous theatre helps launch the Living Theatre* as the embodiment of political theatre. They open with a new piece conceived by the group, Paradise, Now*, which makes a strong theatrical (and social) statement. They will do a nationwide tour next year. The Open Theatre* group, under Joseph Chaikin*, comes out with The Serpent* . The Performance Group* under Richard Schechner* produces their first production, Dionysus in 69*, which is loosely based on Euripides*' play, The Bacchae*. It has grown out of improvisations and has several opportunities for the audience to participate actively in the performance as it explores sexuality, freedom and repression. Schechner* also is an editor of TDR* (The Drama Review) and this year he publishes his six "axioms" to clarify the term "environmental theatre*" which he has popularized. Another dramatist and director, Richard Foreman*, a practitioner in the postmodernist-poststructuralist mode, starts up his own company, the Ontological-Hysteric Theatre* in which he designs and directs his own work. They are mainly meditations on art in which he "deconstructs" the theatrical art work and the process of thought as part of the production (usually from a seat in the front row, using tape recorded or amplified comments. The social and sexual revolution is well underway and plays are showing up that deal with topics that had been taboo a few years ago. Matt Crowley*'s The Boys in the Band* deals with homosexual characters and Peter Nichols* play, Joe Egg*, deals with the disabled and mentally impaired.

The Pulitzer* this year goes to Howard Sackler*'s The Great White Hope*. In the somewhat- absurd vein, Edward Albee* writes Box-Mao-Box* and Arthur Kopit* opens his new play, Indians*.

This year that Polish experimenter, Grotowski,* visits and lectures in the United States and Britain and puts out a book on his work, Towards a Poor Theatre*. His work is already influential here.

Neil Simon* begins his career as a comic writer with three one-acts under the title, Plaza Suite*. This show will be produced, revived and performed for years, as well as being turned into a movie.

There is the traditional musical, George M!*, the musical version of the stage life of George M. Cohan*, featuring his music and lyrics.

The most socially definitive play of the decade moves to Broadway this year. It is referred to as an "American tribal love rock musical." Hair* [see above] makes use of the new musical rhythms, structures and sounds of hard rock and electronic instruments. The "dawning of the Age of Aquarius" echoes and re-echoes through the social fabric, touching on the drug culture, hippies, the new sexual morality, the generation gap, and most enduringly, peace demonstrations and a strong anti-war message. It will be made into a movie and revived many times whenever there is the social need to express a desire for love and a revulsion with fighting and war. [The most notable revival may be the production done nightly during intense enemy shelling in Sarejavo (once Yugoslavia,) in the 1992-5 civil war.] There will be little in the way of rock musicals to follow this one.

In Britain, Joe Orton* writes a zany play, Loot*, and Muriel Spark* comes out with the surprisingly popular The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie*. Another experimental English traveling troupe, the Welfare State International* , is founded by John Fox* and Boris Howarth*. This group is deeply into "collective creation" which combines visual arts, theatre, music, myth- In Britain, Joe Orton* writes a zany play, Loot*, and Muriel Spark* comes out with the surprisingly popular The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie*. Another experimental English traveling troupe, the Welfare State International* , is founded by John Fox* and Boris Howarth*. This group is deeply into "collective creation" which combines visual arts, theatre, music, myth-

The movies are very successful with film adaptations of plays, The Lion in Winter* and The Odd Couple* and the musicals Oliver* and Funny Girl*. The whole social preoccupation with space is best expressed in film, and this year 2001: A Space Odyssey* comes out.

1969 Society In the United States Richard Nixon* is sworn in as President and begins to fulfill his pledge of

withdrawing from Viet Nam. By the end of this year 75,000 U.S. troops will come home. Unfortunately, because of the bitter opposition to the war, returning troops will not find the usual enthusiastic welcome earlier veterans experienced. [Not that there was any great welcome for those who returned from Korea, but no one seems to remember that war.] There are hundreds of thousands of people in several U.S. cities demonstrating their protests against the war. Meanwhile, the ugly massacre of civilians at Mylai* has become known and Staff Sergeant David Mitchell and Lieutenant William Calley are ordered to stand trial on murder charges. The whole Viet Nam mess continues to split the social fabric of the country and arouse great negativity abroad. However, things are just as violent here at home where Charles Manson* and several of his "hippie clan" are indited for the gruesome slayings of actress Sharon Tate and four of her friends at her home in Los Angles. The U.S. experiences pretty bad weather this year. Camille is the strongest hurricane to hit since 1935 and it devastates the Mississippi Gulf coast. Rains in California follow the usual dry spell and send mud slides that wreak extensive damage (10,000 homes) and kill 100. On the positive side, Apollo 11's moon mission is successful and this July 21st marks the day when Neil Armstrong* sets foot on the moon's surface. ["one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind."] The U.S. is trying to increase its oil productivity and this year they are buying up leases in Alaska like crazy. On the popular cultural side it is interesting to note that Harold Robbins receives a two and a half million dollar advance for his novel, The Inheritor* but the Soviet novelist, Alexander Solzhenitsyn* is expelled from the Soviet Writer's Union for his work. This is the sort of thing that attracts all sorts of artists to the West and lures many of them move to the United States.

Internationally 39 nations send representatives to Rome to look into pollution of the oceans and seas. Inflation becomes a world-wide problem. Women are relieved to discover that pants suits have become acceptable everyday wear.

Ever since the end of the Second World War and the de-colonization began there have been crises in Africa involving starvation, civil war in which one ethnic group attempts to eradicate another, refugees and drought. Currently the crisis is in Biafra and the Red Cross is busy flying in relief airlifts.

In France - Early in the year de Gaulle* says he will serve out his presidential term. Later in the year he resigns

Ever since the end of World War II, Britain has been having terrible times trying to control Northern Ireland. The conflicts only get worse. The Irish Catholic nationalists are violent, the Protestants are violent and the British government is violent. All in all there is violent fighting in Ulster and terrorism will spread to England. The government sends in 600 troops to Belfast to put down rioting. The London School of Economics and Political Science has to close for several weeks because of student disorders. One of the major social problems in Great Britain is the great influx of diverse ethnic people who are native to Africa and the East but who choose to be "English" rather than whatever the new independent countries are becoming. There are members of Parliament who propose government financed repatriation of Asians and Africans and other members who insist on limiting the number of those who can come in to England. This will not be an easy problem, either.

Israel gets a new leader as Golda Meir* becomes Prime Minister. Theatre In the United States - the sexual revolution is obviously in full swing as New York sees the

opening of Oh! Calcutta!*, referred to as a "sex revue", and including total nudity. The Living Theatre* ends their tour and leaves the country again, mainly because their leftist audiences argue that if they are true to their political ideas, they should quit performing and join the fight in the streets. Without this radical audience there is hardly anybody left to see their shows. Some members of the group go off to Brazil (but the authorities there don't like their calls for revolution). The Performance Group* under Richard Schechner* comes out with Makbeth* (that plays around with the plot and characters of Shakespeare's* play). In Chicago

a previously active theatre, Goodman Theatre*, is reactivated as one of the regional theatres. This year a very controversial Romanian director, Andrei Serban* (1943- ,) comes to the United States. He will try all sorts of things to make older plays seem fresh. Musicals this year include Promises, Promises* with music by Burt Bachrach* and a book by Neil Simon (but based on the screenplay The Apartment*,) and the patriotic 1776*, (book by Peter Stone* and music and lyrics by Sherman Edwards* ) which covers the signing of the Declaration of Independence.

In Britain Joe Orton* has died but one of his absurd and hystericly funny plays, What the Butler Saw* is produced posthumously. At London's Ambassadors Theatre* they are celebrating the 7,000th performance of the Agatha Christie* play, The Mousetrap* as it begins its 18th year of performances. This charming murder mystery will break all theatrical records for length of run. This year the Pip Simmons Theatre Group* performs their first work, their unique version of Chaucer's The Pardoner's Tale*. The films this year include a film version of the play, Oh! What a Lovely War*

In Czechoslovakia* the plays of Vaclav Havel* are banned. He arranges to have his plays carried to the West where they are published. His reputation as a playwright of political power In Czechoslovakia* the plays of Vaclav Havel* are banned. He arranges to have his plays carried to the West where they are published. His reputation as a playwright of political power

In France Samuel Beckett* gets the Nobel Prize* for Literature this year. Afterword The Cold War and the hot Viet Nam conflict drag on, draining the economic resources of all

involved countries and focusing society's attention on value systems that include military actions. Terrorism and assassination are depressingly common around the world. There is a growing environmental movement all over. In Europe it begins to show up in "Green" political parties and movements.

Social protest, and its reflection in theatrical experimentation and social activism is now actively under way. These will continue and expand in the next decade. The trend toward smaller theatres and theatre groups who address smaller audiences with specific interests will also continue to develop. Minorities are busy taking theatre into their own hands rather than depending on the commercial theatre to toss them a few crumbs. The emphasis is on expressing the life experience of every element of society and the world in new and startling ways. The trend toward collective creation, environmental art, and a break with "modernism" (which is now called postmoderism) calls attention to how the theatrical piece is being made. This is accompanied by deconstruction (or post structuralism) which is busy examining how much potential meaning is left over regardless of how much is included in a production. What this means is, no matter what the playwright thought the play meant, there is always additional, different and more meanings that can be attributed to the play. This does not necessarily make playwrights very happy, but it gives directors a terrific boost.

Emphasis tends to be more on experiencing the present moment. There is expanding interest in all sorts of ways of getting in touch with one's self: Yoga, Trancendental Meditation, Tao, Tai Ching, EST and any available form of psychic well-being. Everybody is either dropping out (of traditional society) or dropping in (to a "group," a collective, or some such). The popular music includes Peter, Paul and Mary, the Grateful Dead and any number of new sounds and faces as reported in the Rolling Stones.*

go to chap21 or back to PART IV Introduction or Theatre History or go to Home

CHAPTER TWENTY-ONE The 70s

Social Activism takes a new turn and it's Living Theatre.