French Revolution

French Revolution

1789 In France, Louis XVI* continues the absolute rule he inherited but he is not a competent ruler and there is a terrific financial crisis. The middle class takes advantage of this and establishes a parliamentary type government based on wealth. The peasants (who are still living in a feudal society) really object to this as even greater exploitation of them. This makes for widespread rioting and the end of feudal society in France. The riots cause food shortages in the city of Paris. This food shortage arouses the Parisian working class to storm the strategic fortress of the Bastille* preventing Louis XVI* from recovering his despotic power to intimidate the city. The French Revolution* is now up and running. The middle class manages to hang on to control of the political end of things for the next two years. They reorganize the civil, religious and military institutions and try to work in cooperation with some of the liberal aristocracy and the king but eventually the counter-revolutionary forces inside and outside France change the revolution. [see below 1792.] With the outbreak of civil disorder, theatre, of course, doesn't flourish.

What does change in France, as a result of the revolution, is medicine. This is because the physicians, as elsewhere, are a small, powerful elite serving the aristocracy. Surgeons, on the other hand, are mere craftsmen. With the revolution, the doctors, as members of the upper class, have to be re-educated and the surgeons elevated. Only surgeons have studied anatomy, and dealt with battlefield wounds, and, being kept out of city practice by the physicians, they went to work in the villages and countryside. When the revolution breaks out there are more surgeons than physicians, which is good, since what is needed now is battlefield care. A new category, called 'health officer' grows up in which both physicians and surgeons are put and have to get used to working together.

In America, exploration goes on. Alexander MacKenzie crosses Canada to the Pacific. There is still a lot of unknown territory out there.

In the United States they elect the first president, George Washington* (1732-1799.) In England the poet, artist and mystic, William Blake* (1757-1827,) comes out with Songs of

Innocence*. 1789 - A comedy, The Father*, introduces William Dunlap* as a new American writer. He

continues to write for the Old American Company* for many years, including the tragedy Andre*, based on an incident in the Revolutionary War.

1790 In Russia, Catherine The Great* opens a second state theatre in St. Petersburg. From Vienna, a man named Johann Peter Frank* is becoming the first great practical

exponent of the science of public health. He is a hospital administrator, clinician and teacher who travels extensively throughout Europe working for the rulers of small states and teaching as he goes. He will produce seven volumes under the title A System of Medical Police* exponent of the science of public health. He is a hospital administrator, clinician and teacher who travels extensively throughout Europe working for the rulers of small states and teaching as he goes. He will produce seven volumes under the title A System of Medical Police*

The Scots poet, Robert Burns* (1759-1796,) puts out his poems, Tam o' Shanter* and Auld Lang Syne*.

The English romantic writer, Ann (nee Ward) Radcliffe*, originator of the school of romance characterized by vivid scenic descriptions, comes out with her A Sicilian Romance*.

In England, the first steam-powered rolling mill (rolls wrought iron) is built and the building of the Firth-Clyde and Oxford-Birmingham canals are started.

Lavoisier* (1743-1794) comes out with his "Tables of Thirty-one Chemical Elements." Mozart* writes Cosi fan tutte* in Vienna. In the United States, Washington, D.C. is founded. 1790 - In England and, consequently, in America, most of the major theater companies have

abandoned the shareholder arrangement and actors now work for straight salaries under a manager.

In Russia, many nobles select serfs* and train them as performers. The next twenty years will see the operation of the most important serf theatres. Some nobles [such as Prince Yusopov who owns some 21,000 serfs] set up separate ballet, opera and dramatic companies, complete with training schools. In Moscow there will be fifteen serf theatres by 1797.

1791 - Thomas Wignell,* a member of the The Old American Company*, leaves them and with Alexander Reinagle*, a musician, starts building the Chestnut Street Theatre* in Philadelphia.

1791 - In Weimar* (Thuringia, Germany) the duke appoints Goethe* director of the Weimar Court Theatre. Now, Goethe* has been producing plays for the court with courtiers as amateur actors from 1775 to 1783. By this time the court (and Goethe*) are tired of amateurs and in 1784 a new Court theatre opened with a resident professional company. This year (1791) Goethe* finally gets to exercise his artistic ideas with professionals and with good financial backing. He will put his own plays and those of Schiller* into a repertory that will grow to include all the best plays. Guest appearances by leading German actors will strengthen the company. Soon, (1799) he will bring in Schiller* to help. Stimulated by a visit from Iffland*'s acting company (1796) and encouraged by Schiller*, Goethe* will begin to take an active interest in the theatre company's work. This will lead him to write at some length on acting and other aspects of producing. He insists on strict discipline and requires the actors to follow his direction. He achieves the most integrated ensemble of the time and will

be remembered as one of the earliest "directors." After his death the members of his company will spread his methods around Germany.

1791 Over in central Europe, Catherine The Great* has been extending Russia's boundaries. This year a Polish rebellion is crushed by Russian troops and we have one of those partitions of Poland. It is divided up between Russia and Prussia and by 1794 Poland ceases to exist.

In the United States the first ten amendments to the Constitution* (the Bill of Rights*) are ratified.

In England, Boswell* (1740-1795) comes out with his Life of Samuel Johnson*, which will

be regarded as a masterpiece of biography. 1791 - In France, theatre monopolies are abolished by the revolutionary government and a lot

of new companies are started up in Paris. In the next ten years there will be more than fifty. Most provide popular entertainment. The Comedie Francaise* splits into two troupes. One branch, with the famous actor Talma* (Francois-Joseph, 1763-1826), is pro-revolution and next year will take the name Theatre de la Republique*. Talma* is the leading actor in France, known for his careful study of roles and attention to historical costume. He is usually known as the greatest French actor ever.

1792 In France the French Revolution* is in trouble. Louis XVI*'s Austrian relations are mobilizing armies. So is Prussia. Between internal counter-revolutionary forces and this threat of armed invasion, the revolutionaries declare war on Austria and Prussia. Soon France is at war with the greater part of Europe. The French Revolution* is a decisive turning point in European history so we will spend a little more time following the flow of events.

Early on there are a series of defeats which causes panic. Reaction to this panic leads to the execution of the king and a lot of slaughter of political suspects. The nation is unified against foreign invasion by the leadership of the Girondins*, Danton* (Georges Jacques Danton, 1759-1794) and Carnot* (Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot, known as "le grand Carnot",* 1753-1823). But the common people rally to a more extreme group, the Jacobins* (Maximelien Fran‡ois Marie Isadore de Robespierre,* 1758-1794, and others.). This group puts the government on a more democratic basis and takes a terrorist approach against anybody who disagrees with them. The guillotine is busy chopping off heads. There is a total military call-up which produces a really dandy and enthusiastic army, well organized by Carnot.* The tide turns and the invaders are not only expelled but are attacked on their home turf.

France takes over Belgium and other territories to establish "natural frontiers." In the army there is a revolutionary doctrine of advancement based on merit, that is, army

careers are now open to talent instead of money or aristocratic standing. This makes it possible for France to extend its power into Holland, Switzerland and Italy. It also brings onto the scene a brilliant military leader named Napoleon Bonaparte* (1769-1821.)

1792 - The Old American Company* has been struggling on, but does not have the intelligent management that will characterize the Chestnut Street Theatre* in Philadelphia. John Henry* is replaced as manager (of the John Street Theatre*) by John Hodgkinson*.

This year yellow fever reaches America (from Africa by way of the West Indies.) Theatres are closed and the disease rages over two thirds of the United States.

1792 Health and medicine take a step forward this year when a French doctor, Phillippe Pinel*, is put in charge of the biggest asylum in Europe for the aged and infirm. It has 8000 patients. and Pinel* advocates strict and repeated observation, recording of findings and 1792 Health and medicine take a step forward this year when a French doctor, Phillippe Pinel*, is put in charge of the biggest asylum in Europe for the aged and infirm. It has 8000 patients. and Pinel* advocates strict and repeated observation, recording of findings and

Illuminating gas is used for the first time in England and the Libel Act is passed. In the United States dollar coinage is minted. Exploration is still going on. This year

American merchants, sailing out of Boston, are exploring the Pacific northwest coast of the American continent and find the mouth of the Columbia River (up there in what is now Washington state.) This may not seem like much but it makes a lot of people think there may

be a "northwest passage" by water from the east to the west. This will prime the pump for northwest exploration (despite the fact that this territory belongs to somebody else.)

1793 - The prohibition against acting in Boston is rescinded and the Federal Street Theatre* is built. Frequented with management problems, it will never have a big impact on American theater, but Boston becomes a major theatrical center.

1793 In the United States they re-elect Washington* president. The portrait painter, Gilbert Stuart* (1755-1828) opens his studio in New York. He is, of course, remembered for his portraits of Washington* among many others.

In France, the Marquis de Sade* (1740-1814) is writing a novel, La Philosophie dans le boudoir*.

This is the year the violin virtuoso, Paganini* (1782-1840,) makes his debut at Genoa (at age 11.) He will later tour Europe and compose for the violin.

1794 - This year two new theatres open. The first, the Federal Street Theatre,* opens in Boston with an independent company. The second, and more important, opens in Philadelphia. Wignell* has gone to England for actors and brings back some of the best talent yet seen in the New World to play here. Among them is the great actress' Sarah Siddons*' sister, Elizabeth Whitlock*. Wignell* opens Chestnut Street Theatre* with this impressive group. The theatre building is modeled on the Theatre Royal* at Bath, England, and seats about 1200 with a stage 71 feet deep by 36 feet wide. The audience seating includes three tiers of galleries. Philadelphia will be a theatrical center for the new country for many years. The Chestnut Street Theatre* company is the only real challenger to the New York based The Old American Company*, which will remain the leading company in America well into the 19th century.

1794 In France they are beginning to be revolted by the excesses of the revolutionary terror. With the Revolution of the 9th of Thermidor (July 27, they renamed all the months) and the resultant execution of Robespierre,* the Reign of Terror* is over and the French return to a more middle-class government. The practice of medicine, however, is improving by leaps and bounds, what with having so many medical cases to deal with. This year all hospitals become state property and facilities continue to expand. At the medical college (Ecole de Sante) surgeons are in charge and there is an extensive curriculum including external, internal and advanced clinical. The ideas of the Enlightenment are adapted to medicine and careful attention is now being given to looking, examining and dealing with immediate causes. Clinical observation becomes central to medical practice.

Slavery is abolished in French colonies.

In the United States they establish the U.S. Navy. In the arts, Goya* (1746-1828) is painting in Spain. Later he will move to France (1814.) 1795 This is the time when the first attempt to quantify electricity and magnetism are taking

place. The first horse-drawn railway shows up in England. This notion of rails to run transport on

will be the second big step in the industrial revolution. 1795 - Charleston, South Carolina also becomes a major center for American theater. John

Joseph Sollee* is the manager of the City Theatre* (or French Theatre*) where many plays are performed in French. Charleston has a large French population due to the refugees from the French Revolution and slave uprisings in Santo Domingo.

In England, the romantic poets keep trying to write plays. Most of them are pretty bad plays. This year William Wordsworth* (1770-1850) comes out with The Borders*.

1796 - Thomas Abthorpe Cooper* (1776-1849) one of England's most promising young actors, comes to the Chestnut Street Theatre* in America because he is unable to find a suitable engagement at home. Within a few years he is considered America's leading actor, popularizing the Kemble style of acting in the New World. Hodgkinson* and Hallam*, both give up their managerial positions at the John Street Theatre* and William Dunlap* takes over management. But Hallam* and Hodgkinson* remain as actors in the company, even though they still remain rivals.

1796 The French Armies are on the march, especially in Italy where Napoleon Bonaparte* is sent by the Directory*.

In the United States George Washington* refuses a third term as President and John Adams* narrowly beats out Thomas Jefferson* as the next president. Jefferson* serves as Vice- president.

In Russia Catherine The Great* dies and her son Paul I* succeeds.