Peter the Great*

Peter the Great*

Peter* is the absolute ruler of a country where the sheer size and ethnically divided population defy change. The country runs from the Arctic Circle in the north to the Caspian Sea in the south, and six thousand miles from east to west. Wealth is determined exclusively by land where the boyars* (illiterate nobility) hold hereditary landed estates and the lesser nobles have life-time estates and where the peasant serfs* are bound by law to the same patch of land in perpetuity. There is a small (22,000) military called the streltsy, established in the sixteenth century as a personal guard for the czar and his family, who have developed into a hereditary conservative class. The whole thing is governed by forty departments of state.

1721 - In Russia, Peter the Great* concludes a peace treaty with Sweden, giving Russia access to the Baltic. He is now ready to make enlightened social changes in his country. The feudal obligations of serf to landowner and landowner to czar are now changed so that the first service owed is to the state. All physically able men of the landed class are required to serve in the military or civil bureaucracy in order to retain their position and lands.

Peter* builds up the army, establishes a navy, gives priority to finding and mining iron, copper, and coal, to fuel industry. He introduces promotion based on merit and establishes new class structure. He also introduces three parallel categories of state servants: military, civil and judicial. Within each of these there are fourteen classes with promotion based strictly on merit. This means that a commoner reaching the top level can achieve the status of a hereditary noble.

To deal with the appalling lack of education in Russia Peter* promotes education along secular lines instead of leaving it in the hands of the church. He simplifies the Russian alphabet, promotes the publication of textbooks, sets up colleges specializing in languages, mining, engineering and military affairs. He sends a large number of students to study abroad. Unfortunately, with such a huge and diverse population, he isn't able to reach very many people.

Peter* abolishes the Patriarchate of Moscow as head of the Church and replaces it with a Holy Governing Synod. This reduces the church to a government department of spiritual affairs. All these are only the beginning and Peter* only starts the ball rolling. It will take another enlightened ruler to raise the country to a level where theatre becomes a possibility.

1722 - The trend in English comedy toward middle class characters and sentimentality reaches its height in The Conscious Lovers* by Sir Richard Steele * (1672-1729). Loosely based on a play by Terence*, we find the penniless heroine braving endless trials to discover in the end that she is the daughter of a rich merchant. Comedy is no longer funny or intended to amuse. Instead it is intended to arouse noble sentiments in the hearts of the audience. The characters seem to us unnaturally good and they manage to make their problems melt away, but this is in keeping with the Age of Reason* view that humans are good by nature and can

be redeemed from any bad behavior if their "hearts" are touched. This particular trend in comedy is about to cross over and continue to flourish in tragedy.

1723 - By this year the English pantomime* becomes the most popular form of theatrical entertainment in England. Although they are only afterpieces to the main play, they are often more popular than the play they accompany. When a new pantomime* is put on, the theatre raises the ticket prices. The audience loves it partly because pantomime exploits spectacle.

This progress into scenic extravagance will begin to change the size of the stage so that more and more scenery can be used.

In France, the Italian Commedia del'Arte* company called the Com‚die-Italienne* since 1680, is made into a state theatre company called the com‚diens ordinaires du roi**. This same year the theatrical fair companiesare permitted to resume their productions. All this means that there are now three legitimate companies and some semi-legitimate fair companies.

1724 In England, gin drinking becomes popular. 1725-50 - In Russia, theatre is confined to the court. 1727 - This year Carolina Neuber* and Johann form their own theatre company, acquiring the

right to play the annual fair at Leipzig, the intellectual capital of Germany and the home of Gottsched*. He meets them and they agree to work together to reform the German theatre. Gottsched* provides translations and imitations of French neoclassic plays and Carolina Neuber* raises the standard of performances by requiring careful rehearsals, innovations in costuming and company discipline. Unfortunately the audiences don't want more refined theatre. However, her work is very important because all the major actors and heads of prominent German theatre companies will work with and learn their basic theatrical ideas from Carolina Neuber.*

In England the first Goodman's Fields Theatre* opens. It won't last long and another of the same name will open soon. [see below 1732]

1727 In England, George* I dies and his son George* II comes to the English and Hanover throne. He will rule 1727-1760. Like his father, he doesn't speak English and puts Hanover's interests before England's. He will become involved in wars on the continent to protect Hanover. He will also have to deal with the biggest Jacobite* rebellion yet, in Scotland.

1727 England first begins the use of Hessian mercenaries. The superiority of training given the German troops makes them sought after. These are the guys who will show up working for England in the American Revolution.

In Brazil they are planting coffee for the first time. 1728 - The first English ballad opera*, The Beggar's Opera* by John Gay* (1685-1732)

opens. It is produced by Rich** and will be revived frequently down to today. The piece uses operatic conventions but has spoken dialogue and lyrics set to popular tunes. The story of low-life in London includes satirical comments on the political situation of the time. [Much later Bertolt Brecht* will use this work as the basis for his Threepenny Opera*.]

1728 North American exploring is still going on. This year the Dutch explorer, Vitus Behring discovers the Behring (or Bering) Strait between Alaska and Russia.

1729 In America, both North and South Carolina become colonies. 1730 - This is the year when the Irish actor, Charles Macklin* (c. 1700-97) comes back to

London. He had tried it in 1725 but returned to the provinces. He plays at Lincoln's Inn

Fields* in comedy and in 1732 he goes to work for Drury Lane*. He has a very naturalistic style which doesn't impress the audiences at first, but it will, as time goes on. [see below 1741]

1730 - In Russia Empress Anna* (niece of Peter the Great and daughter of Ivan V, reigns 1730-40) continues her uncle's cultural interests and imports Commedia del'Arte*, opera and

a French dance master, Jean-Baptiste Landet*. This dance master will turn out to be the founder of the Russian ballet. The Neuber* troupe also comes to Russia on Anna's* watch and leaves shortly after her death.

1730s - In England the popularity of the works of Henry Fielding* (1707-54) reaches its height in the 1730s and then begins to wane. He is known for comedies and satires attacking political and literary follies. He will later turn to novel writing.

1731 - The London Merchant* by George Lillo* (1693-1739) comes out in England this year. This play is a landmark in signaling a change of direction in playwrighting. The hero is drawn from everyday life, an apprentice who is led astray by a hooker. The poor guy goes on to kill his uncle and ends, repentant, but on the gallows. This play is revived well into the nineteenth century.

1731 In America, Philadelphia to be precise, Benjamin Franklin* founds a subscription library.

1732 This year James Oglethorpe* (1696-1785) gets an English charter to establish a colony in Georgia. Next year. 1733, he founds Savannah, Georgia.

In Philadelphia Benjamin Franklin* starts bringing out "Poor Richard's Almanack." It will continue publication through 1757.

1732 - Russia: They open the Cadet College for the education of sons of the nobility. What is of interest to us is that there is a Society of Lovers of Russian Literature founded in connection with the College. This will serve the Russians much like the French Academy served the French. It will encourage playwrighting.

1732 - England: This year the old Goodman's Fields Theatre* closes and a new one with the same name opens. Another, more famous, patent (that is it is legal) theatre opens. Covent Garden* (the land had once been part of a convent garden) is designed by the architect, Edward Shepherd,* to seat 1,897. It is under the management of Rich**.