The Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Enlightenment
The Age of Reason* has already begun in the philosophical works of Rene Descartes (1596- 1650). In 1637 he wrote, in A Discourse on Method*, "I think, therefore I am." The neoclassic views of the Renaissance are beginning to change, through the expressions of "natural philosophers" into a new outlook. This new view holds that reason is the way the mind naturally works and, if given a good environment (free of ignorance, superstition, bad laws, etc.), reason will grow and flower as nature intended. This is also the Age of Enlightenment* where reason is applied to public policy. Moreover, it is an Age of Faith, in which the central concern is addressing the problem, moral and political, of how to insure the rule of right reason here on earth. The Age of Reason* will continue throughout the period covered in this chapter until it comes into collision with the next great idea, Romanticism*.
The Age of Enlightenment* is particularly evident in a new scientific way of looking at things. Thinkers are finally freeing themselves from slavishly following Aristotle as they discover that he was quite wrong about a number of things. Scientific thinkers are attempting to be objective about what they see. In social and political thought there are new considerations about how society should be organized and how governments should be run. The search for "fundamental laws", like the "laws" of nature, is undertaken in all realms. Rulers strive to run their countries in an enlightened manner for the benefit of their subjects. Of course, "enlightenment" is interpreted differently by each ruler and mustn't infringe on their authority. We will take note of some of the more prominent of these enlightened rulers as we encounter them.
At the moment it may be useful to be aware of some of the major participants since this is the time when the foundations of our current thinking are established.
Scientific progress is rapid and widespread, owing much to two early thinkers: Francis Bacon* (1561-1626) was an English philosopher and writer. He is particularly relevant for advocating a new systematic analysis of knowledge, intended to replace Aristotle's deductive logic with an inductive method in interpreting nature; Galileo Galilei* (1564-1642) was an Italian astronomer and physicist who conceived the three laws of motion later formulated by Newton, improved the telescope for astronomical use and was denounced and later tried by the Inquisition for heretical views that the earth and planets revolve around the sun.
Scientific progress is carried on by such figures as: Anton van Leeuwenhoeck* (1632-1723) who improves the microscope and discovers unexpected complexities of what can be seen, especially microorganisms. He is remembered for giving the first accurate descriptions of a number of things he sees. Sir Issac Newton* (1642-1727) is an English natural philosopher and mathematician who conceives the idea of universal gravitation (1665.) G. W. Leibniz* (1646-1716) is a German philosopher and mathematician. His work, together with Newton*'s, develops calculus. In his principal work in theology he discusses the problem of evil and a defense of optimism [see Voltaire below.] David Hartley* is an English physician and philosopher who lays the foundation for psychology and is active in education.
Benjamin Franklin* (1706-1790) is an American statesman, scientist and philosopher [which makes it difficult to know where to put him.] His experiments with electricity place him among the scientists, but his work in founding libraries and establishing the postal system need to be remembered. His political accomplishments will
be addressed later. Carl Linnaeus* (von Linne) (1707-1778) is a Swedish botanist and the father of the modern system of botany. Antoine Laurent Lavoiser* (1743-1794) is a French chemist and the founder of modern chemistry. He names oxygen, puts forth a theory of the formation of chemical compounds, and, with others, works out the system of chemical nomenclature that is the basis of our present system.
The seventeenth century produces a number of thinkers whose investigations lead them to reappraisals of current views in the Christian religion. The old architecture of a Christian cosmos with God at the top and man in the center is being rethought. The emphasis in now on rational inquiry and a search for empirical data to support views.
Philosophic progress is based on some earlier men: Rene Descartes* (1596-1650) "Cartesian rationalism" is the leading theory whereby man might, by
applying Decartes method of enquiry, discover basic axioms on which to build a "social science" as accurate and valid as physical sciences. We owe our current Social Sciences to this guy. Baruch Spinoza* (1632-77) is a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese-Jewish extraction. He is a follower of Descartes* and the most eminent expounder of pantheism. John Locke* (1632-1704) is better remembered by the general population for his work in political theory [see below.] He asserts that man is the product of his environment. George Berkeley* (1685-1753) is an Irish philosopher who lives in America from 1728-31. David Hume* (1711-1776) is a Scots philosopher known for his philosophical skepticism (Humism.)
Immanuel Kant* (1724-1804) is a German metaphysician and transcendental philosopher and the founder of critical philosophy. He seeks to determine the laws and limits of man's knowledge while avoiding dogmatism. Liberal in his religious views, he champions freedom and sympathizes with American and French people in their struggles for liberty.
Religion: Travelers and explorers find people worshiping deities, totally unconnected with Christianity,
that give every evidence of virtue and morality. This leads to rethinking ideas of religion. The intelligentsia consider that religion should be based on rationality and move to "deism" and
"natural virtue" instead of "original sin." There is the growth of "natural religion", especially in England. This is an attempt to bring religion into a viable relation with the explosion of "natural virtue" instead of "original sin." There is the growth of "natural religion", especially in England. This is an attempt to bring religion into a viable relation with the explosion of
Political theory: John Locke* begins the development with his 1690 publication Two Treatises of
Government* in which he puts forth the view that government is responsible to the governed as a consequence of a mythical contract entered into when society was first formed. If this contract is broken by a ruler, then the community has the right to rebel. This idea, supported by the success of the English Civil War, will grow and spread, influencing the revolutions of the eighteenth century and gradually decreasing the number of "absolute" rulers in the western world. His followers and elaborators in France include: Montesquieu* (1689- 1755) who is a lawyer and political philosopher. Clause Adrien Helvetius* (1715-1771) is a French philosopher who writes De l'Esprit* in 1758. This work is condemned by the Sorbonne and publicly burned because in it he expounds his doctrine of sensationalism, or sensualism. The coming Romantic movement will like it. Jean Jacques Rousseau* (1712-1778) who lives mainly in Paris and is an associate of Diderot. He begins the notion of the "noble savage." Denis Diderot* (1713-1784) is best known for editing the Encyclopedia* although he also writes two plays and does a lot of art and theatre criticism. One of his more influential acts is when he sells his library to Catherine II* of Russia. Marquis de Condorcet* (1743-94) is active politically in the aftermath of the French Revolution (with the Girondists) writing the Progress of the Human Spirit*.
Economic theory: Adam Smith* will write the Wealth of Nations* in 1776, which puts forth the notion of
"enlightened self-interest." Authors who reflect the Enlightenment: Alexander Pope* (1688-
1733) is an English poet. He attempts a systematic survey of human nature reflected in his Essay on Man* (1733.) This is an age of encyclopedias when a number of writers strive to put all this new knowledge together with the old.
Enlightened despotism is found in several rulers: Peter I the Great* (1672-1725) renowned for introducing European civilization into Russia and raising his country to a recognized place among European powers. Frederick the Great* (1712-1786), becomes the King of Prussia. He is best known for his military prowess but also excels as an enlightened administrator and is an admirer of George Washington*.
Catherine II the Great* (1729-96) of Russia is also known for extending her empire, but she identifies with the Russian people, corresponds with Voltaire* and is a disciple of the encyclopedists. Joseph II* (1741-90) of Austria/Germany and Holy Roman Emperor is one of the best examples of the "benevolent despot," known for his Edict of Toleration.
The combination of the ideas of the Enlightenment* and the inclinations of the middle class lead to theatre fare in which "sentiments" predominate. The triumph of innocent virtue rewarded and evil forces punished delights the public most. Both comedy and serious plays are transformed into "sentimental" forms. Aristocratic nobles turn more to opera and ballet and regular theatre caters to the increasingly affluent middle-class merchants. We will, The combination of the ideas of the Enlightenment* and the inclinations of the middle class lead to theatre fare in which "sentiments" predominate. The triumph of innocent virtue rewarded and evil forces punished delights the public most. Both comedy and serious plays are transformed into "sentimental" forms. Aristocratic nobles turn more to opera and ballet and regular theatre caters to the increasingly affluent middle-class merchants. We will,
1680 - The English Restoration Continues and Becomes the Age of Great Acting Introduction: The actual restoration of the king is now twenty years in the past. The plague and fire have
come and gone and rebuilding London is well in hand. The king, his court and all sorts of hangers-on make up the mainstay of the theatre audience. In this limited society everyone knows everyone else and they all live in London. Those who live outside London are regarded as culturally deprived and of no account in "society." The playwrights and members of the company know their audiences personally and reflect their interests and tastes. The rest of the English population is still suspicious of the theatre and we will hear more of their views.
The English Restoration Theatre at this time: WHERE - After the various fires the important usable theatres in London are: Christopher Wren*'s
Dorset Garden Theatre*, built by Davenant* to accommodate operatic spectacles; Drury Lane Theatre*, seating 650 people and built by Killigrew*; Lincoln's Inn Fields* seats less, used earlier by Davenant* and not in use at this time.
The proscenium arch is now a permanent feature, but the English stages feature a large apron in front of the arch. It is on this forestage that all the action takes place. It is also here that audience seating begins to encroach on both sides. The scenery is behind the arch where the stage floor is raked, there are grooves for wings and shutters, and traps in the floor and flying machinery hanging from above. The roll drop is another mainstay of the background scenery. The audience space has a raked pit, at least two galleries (or balconies) and lots of boxes. Unlike the French, there are usually benches in the pit rather than standing only.
WHO- COMPANIES Basically there are two patent companies in London. These are the only theatre companies
permitted to put on plays in England. This does not include Ireland which has its own patent. There are a couple of licenses for theatre in the provinces. Obviously there are also going to
be "illegal" theatres and productions. The two original patents were granted to William Davenant* and Thomas Killigrew*. When Davenant* died in 1668 two actors, Thomas Betterton* and Henry Harris (until 1677, then it is William Smith) take over the artistic direction with the Davenant family controlling the finances and the patent. Killigrew* doesn't manage his company very well and in 1682 the two companies merge.
HOW - AND WHO, ACTORS The performances start fairly early in the afternoon since the audience doesn't go to work.
This will change gradually as the period goes on. On the stage we have actors and actresses who began the period as shareholders but the financial arrangements are changing too. The trend is toward paying actors a salary and providing benefit nights in which the night's This will change gradually as the period goes on. On the stage we have actors and actresses who began the period as shareholders but the financial arrangements are changing too. The trend is toward paying actors a salary and providing benefit nights in which the night's
The scenery is made up of stock sets used over and over again, no matter what the play is. If it takes place in a chamber it is the same chamber they used for a different play last week. The costumes are supplied by the actors with a company wardrobe for those who don't have something good enough. They are, of course, all contemporary clothes. That works fine for the contemporary comedies but seems strange to us for plays that are supposed to take place, for example, in classical Rome.
ACTRESSES - Nell Gwynn* (1650-1687) brief career as a comedian and dancer 1665-69. Elizabeth Barry* (1658-1713) leading tragic roles with Betterton*. Anne Bracegirdle* (c. 1663-1748) in comedy of manners beginning 1680. ACTORS - Thomas Betterton* (1635-1710) is regarded as the greatest actor of his day, especially in
heroic and tragic parts. The other actors fall far behind him. The next wave of important actors will come, in large part, from the theatre in Dublin.
WHAT - The types of plays and theatrical entertainments being given in these theatres include: tragedy
written in blank verse, best seen in Thomas Otway*'s The Orphan*, (1680); an English version of opera which uses Shakespeare*'s plays and new works by Dryden* and has spoken passages. This is the period when Henry Purcell* (1659-1695) is starting to write incidental music for plays; and, comedy of all kinds (of "humours", of intrigue, farce) and especially comedy of manners*.
The most interesting and enduring plays of this period are those known as comedy of manners* and the more important authors of these are: Sir
George Etherege* (She Would if She Could* 1668; The Man of Mode* 1676) William
Wycherley* (Love in a Wood* 1671, The Gentleman Dancing Master* 1672, The Country Wife* 1675, The Plain Dealer* 1676) William Congreve* (1670-
1729), the best known nowadays of all in this period, is yet to come. We will look at his work later.
WOMEN PLAYWRIGHTS - We are coming into a period with a large number of women playwrights. They are among the
most successful dramatists of their time and some of their plays continue to be produced into the nineteenth century. The first and best known of this band is Aphra Behn* (1641-89). She is the first Englishwoman we know about to make a living as a writer. Her most successful plays are comedies of intrigue, which makes sense since she spent the Dutch war being a spy. The Rover; or, the Banish't Cavaliers*, first done in 1678, is often revived throughout the period in a modified version. The title role is a favorite for leading actors.
The End of the Seventeenth Century 1681 - The Spanish theatrical Renaissance comes to an end with the death this year of
Calderon*. In England the leading writer of farce, Edward Ravenscroft* (fl. 1671-1697) comes out with the popular London Cuckolds*.
1682 - Because of financial difficulties the companies of Davenant* and Killigrew* merge, performing mainly at the Drury Lane Theatre*. The Dorset Garden Theatre* is now seldom used.
1682 La Salle* goes down the Mississippi River to the Gulf of Mexico and claims all the land in the valley for Louis XIV. He calls it Louisiana* .
1683 In the tiny Duchy of Saxony, the town of Gotha* builds an opera house. We will hear more from this town later in the next chapter. The Germans in Hamburg and Leipzig are also fairly involved with opera, ballet and foreign troupes touring.
1683 Newton* explains his mathematical theory on tides and the gravitational attraction of the sun, moon and earth. In America we find the first German immigrants.
1685 In England Charles II* dies and his Catholic brother James II* comes to the throne. He wants a return to an absolute monarchy and a reestablishment of Catholicism as the national religion. This is just what Parliament has been afraid of and there is strong opposition to his views. The conflict is called the "Glorious Revolution," in which the Catholic view is unsuccessful at the moment. However, the controversy will continue without breaking into actual warfare. [This business of having an enforced state religion, which persecutes everybody who doesn;t belong to that particualr faith, is just the thing that will lead the American colonies to insist on putting the separation of church and ctate business into their Constitution.] In the Far East, all Chinese ports are opened to foreign trade. In France Louis XIV* revokes the Edict of Nantes* (that agreement that permittedreligious tolerance) and exiles thousands of French Protestants (called Huguenots*). Many of these Protestants emigrate to North America and many others go to England and Holland. They tend to be very industrious and skilled workers which is a big help in the colonies.
1686 - In Paris the French composer Jean Baptiste Lully* (who wrote music for Moliere*) comes out with his opera, Armide et Renaud*.
1687 - In England, Aphra Behn* brings out a pantomime-farce, The Emperor of the Moon*, which is not interesting in itself but is a forerunner of a theatrical trend that will lead to the English pantomime.
1687 The English Catholics win a victory when parliament passes exemptions for Catholics from the Test Act. Both Catholics and Dissenters are benefited by suspension of the penal laws against them through the king's Declaration of Indulgence. Another crisis is on the way over this attempt to restore Catholic influence in the country.
1688 - Charles Davenant sells his controlling interest in the theatre to his brother Alexander. This may seem irrelevant now but it makes trouble later.
1688 England is so mad at James II* about the Catholic business and his attempts to restore absolute monarchy that open revolt seems a real possibility. Instead of a real armed conflict, parliament invites Netherlands's ruler, William of Orange* (James* II's daughter Mary*'s husband, remember?), to bring over Dutch troops and help them against the king, his father- in-law. He does and James* quits without a fight at the moment, joining his Catholic wife and son in exile in France. This brings to an end the "Glorious Revolution." Parliament meets in convention and decides to offer the crown to William and Mary* jointly. However parliament insists on certain conditions. Parliament requires the rulers submission to parliamentary consent on important matters including who gets picked for succession to the throne. They both accept these conditions and this marks the beginning of the British constitutional monarchy*.
1689 - Racine* (now in retirement at Port Royal) is persuaded to write a play (Esther*) for Mme. de Maintenon*'s girl's school at St. Cyr. By the author's request, it is not performed professionally during his lifetime. It is very successful anyway.
The Comedie Francaise* moves into a new theatre built especially for them out of a tennis court of the Etoile* in St. Germain-des-Pres. In England Henry Purcell* writes his opera, Dido and Aeneas*, with a libretto by Nahum Tate* (who is better remembered for his adaptations of Shakespeare's tragedies with happy endings.)
1689 James II* tries to make a comeback and lands with an army in Ireland but William II* beats him soundly and James gives up next year. William II and Mary I* have to accept a Declaration of Right which confirms the ancient rights and privileges of the people before they will be permitted to rule. They accept and parliament ratifies the declaration as the Bill of Rights. This is terrific for England but it doesn't cover the rights of overseas colonists. This oversight will lead to a later revolution in America. Meanwhile William of Orange* (William II* back home in Orange) signs on as William III* of England and Mary becomes Mary II* of England. They also sign on to a religious Toleration Act, but the Test Act (which tests your religious affiliation) has not been repealed and there is still a lot of controversy. After all that parliamentary leadership since the first Charles fight in 1640, we now have two British political parties, the Whigs and the Tories. The Whigs back the notion that the throne can be assigned by parliament and the Tories are the last of the Royalists and insist that the throne belongs by heredity and divine right.
Peter I the Great* seizes the Russian throne from his half-sister and begins his attempts to turn Russia into a modern state. In America the European settlers conflict with the native Indians Peter I the Great* seizes the Russian throne from his half-sister and begins his attempts to turn Russia into a modern state. In America the European settlers conflict with the native Indians
1690 - In England, as the financial management of the theatre changes, ownership of theatres pass into the hands of non-theatre people. Among theatre artists, the actor-manager emerges as the one position that will become the dominant force in shaping British theatre through the end of our period. The actor-manager is also the one who has the biggest financial stake in a theatre company.
1690 The English found Calcutta (India) with a colonial administrator for enlarging trade. 1691 - Racine* writes another play (Athalie*) for the girl's school at St. Cyr. This, too, is
successful but he won't let this one be performed professionally during his lifetime either. Later (in 1721) this play will be performed and become known as one of his masterpieces.
1692 - In England, the dramatist Nahum Tate* is made poet laureate. He has rewritten Shakespeare's* tragedies with happy endings to appeal to the sentimental audiences. Tate*'s versions of these Shakespearean plays will prevail on the stage through the nineteenth century.
1693 - Alexander Davenant (remember he bought the controlling interest in the theatre?) leaves England to escape his creditors. It turns out a lawyer named Christopher Rich* had put up a lot of the money. Now Rich seizes control of the theatre even though he doesn't know anything about the business. He turns out to be a really lousy guy to work for and theatrical mutiny begins to brew.
William Congreve* 1693 - This is the year when William Congreve* (1670-1729) comes out with his first
brilliant comedy, Old Bachelor*. He will write four more before giving up the theatre in disgust. His comedies are praised for their wit, grace and brilliance of the dialogue. He will also defend the morality of the stage against Jeremy Collier* [see below, 1698.] His other comedies are:
Double Dealer* (1693) Love For Love* (1695) The Way of the World* (1700) 1694 The English queen, Mary II*, dies without children and the monarchy's succession
become a matter for serious debate. This is the year the Bank of England is founded. Now you can borrow money from an institution instead of a moneylender.
1695 - In England William Congreve* comes out with Love for Love*. In this play, and a later one, Congreve* brings the comedy of manners to its peak. The brilliant scenes are marked by the wittiest dialogue and terrific characterizations.
This is also the year that the major performers, led by Betterton*, break away from the management of Rich* at the Drury Lane Theatre.* The actors revolt and persuade William
III* to give them a license to form a second troupe. He does, they do, and they open up the Lincoln's Inn Fields* Theatre.
1696 - The new more sentimental and moral trend shows up in a work by one of the most prominent rising playwrights, Colley Cibber* (1671-1757.) Love's Last Shift* is the first of a number of plays that show profligate characters pursuing their fashionable objectives until, at the end, they have a change of heart, reform, and convert to a sentimental moral view.
1696 England establishes the Board of Trade to promote the interests of merchants and industry.
1697 - The commedia dell'arte* troupe is expelled from Paris following an alleged attack on Louis XIV*'s second wife. Parisian theater is reduced to the Comedie Francaise* and the Opera.
In England, Ravenscroft* comes out with his other popular farce, The Anatomist*. 1697 This year Peter* The Great of Russia goes traveling abroad incognito. He is off for a
year and a half to study European ways of life in Prussia, Holland, England and Vienna. He will learn a lot.
In England and Europe a popular means of transportation is the Sedan chair. The French court of Versailles is the model for European courts. In England, Daniel Defoe* is writing and recommends income tax in his Essay on Projects*
which is full of commercial and social proposals far ahead of his time. He will turn to fiction later.
1698 - In England, Jeremy Collier* makes an attack on current playwrighting which has considerable merit. A Short View of the Immorality and Profaness of the English Stage* emphasizes neoclassic doctrine that theatre should teach and please. He makes a good case that current English plays don't do either one. This promotes some changes in playwrighting. Dryden* and a few others make public apologies but Congreve* protests and, after one last effort, will give up playwrighting for good. New plays now show a move toward a more conservative moral position and increasing sentimentality. That is, the good are sorely tried by evil, triumph in the end, and are rewarded while the evil are punished.
1698 In England, what with all these new foods being imported from distant parts, chocolate and coffee are becoming very fashionable. The Brits open coffee and chocolate houses. These will become the headquarters of those new political parties. Mrs. White's Chocolate House opens this year. This will become home to the Tories* (the royalist party).
1699 - The English playwrighting trend toward moral and sentimental comedy shows up in The Constant Couple* by George Farquhar* (1678-1707). Farquhar* manages to preserve wit in his plays but avoids problems of moral controversy and sets his plays in the country (which is more conservative and moral) rather than in the fashionable (and wicked) city.
1699-1702 - Over in America Richard Hunter* obtains permission to give theatrical performances, but there is no evidence that he actually does so. Students present plays at Harvard and William and Mary colleges.
1700 - Congreve*'s last, and most brilliant, play, The Way of the World*, goes on the stage. It is full of fops, intrigue, foolish men and women, all driven by their desire for reputation and money. The play sparkles with witty dialogue. The leading pair of lovers, Millamant and Mirabell, show how the wise and prudent can reach a marriage agreement that can survive among the dangerous ways of their peculiar world. After this play both the world and its ways begin to change.
1700 In Spain the new King is a French Bourbon, Philip V*, and the Spanish Renaissance comes to an end. We will hear only occasionally from Spain as an important part of western civilization from here on.
In America the Hudson Bay Company is founded to take advantage of the increasing popularity, and, of course, value, of beaver skins.
In Russia, Peter* has returned from his travels abroad and begins all sorts of changes. He changes the old Russian calendar to the Julian calendar* used in Europe. Opposing the archconservative church, he makes a start on social reforms.
In Germany, Berlin to be precise, unmarried women are taxed for their spinster state. 1700 - In France there are only two legitimate troupes in Paris: the opera and the Comedie
Francaise.* But, they have competition from the theatres at the fairs. These fairs are not the week long livestock shows we are used to now. These are a combination of a trade fair and a semi-permanent international market. The French fairs have been big time international affairs since the early middle ages. The two biggest are the St. Germain which runs from February to Easter, and the St. Laurent which goes from the end of June to the end of October. Obviously these events are in need of entertainment as a regular ingredient. The French prohibition against any theatrical group (other than the two legitimate theatres) putting on performances depends on the definition of "legitimate" as a production in which there is only spoken dialogue. This definition enables them to assign certain theatres for the production of Opera, ballet and pantomime, while reserving two for the "legitimate" theatre. This distinction leads, as it does in England, to troupes producing plays with music in them to evade the restriction.
1701 Since the French and English have been fighting each other off and on for hundreds of years, it isn't suprising that the French King, Louis XIV,* recognizes the "Old Pretender", (James, the son of James II*) as James III* of England. Louis will help the "Jacobite" cause by funding attempts on behalf of James III* to regain the English throne. It doesn't work, but it sure makes the English unhappy.
In America, Yale College is founded in New Haven, Connecticut German Theatre Begins To Stir - 1700 The Peace of Westphalia* (1648) had put an end to the Thirty Years War*, marked the end of
the Holy Roman Empire* and begins the modern European state system. The war left an the Holy Roman Empire* and begins the modern European state system. The war left an
In 1697, the elector of Saxony* becomes the King of Poland as Augustus II*, beginning a cultural and artistic flowering in Saxony that will last until his son's death in 1763. By and large most of this central European area is a political and cultural mess at this time.
This Central European area was the center of the German Reformation in thepreceding century and now is dominated by the Jesuit* school theatre which doesn't encourage professional theatre. Consequently, the popular theatre is to be found mainly at the fairs. The typical program there includes two plays followed by a farce. In all these the clown is the most prominent figure.
The German Narr* is equivalent to the English fool. He has appeared throughout the sixteenth century as one who lives foolishly, only gradually becoming a comic character. Among other attributes he can be a comic peasant where his assumed stupidity covers slyness. The clown improvises at will, appearing in such guises as Hans Stockfisch* and Pickelhering*. These characteristics are now being blended with the English clown and the Italian Commedia del'Arte* to give rise to the Hanswurst* (see below.) Attempts have been made to adapt French neoclassic plays to German but the audiences don't like them.
As the period progresses we will see the rise of new acting methods and a new managerial system which will gradually raise theatrical performers from the misery of strolling players to dignified positions in an assured profession supported by noble patronage.
By 1700 opera and Italinate scenery can be found in many of the German and Austrian courts.