Melodrama,* Popular Theatre, and Napoleon MELODRAMA*

Melodrama,* Popular Theatre, and Napoleon MELODRAMA*

In 1797 in France, the man who coins the word "Melodrama"* produces his first successful play. Rene-Charles Pixerecourt* (1773-1844) will write (or collaborate on) nearly 100 plays. For thirty years he will provide the second rate theatre with their main fare. His work typifies the mixture of ferocity and idealism of the French Revolution which permeates the plays produced for illiterate audiences. He is influenced by German writers and his own work will strongly influence the rise of French Romanticism. He will also strongly influence the English where most of his plays appear soon after they are done in France.

By this time the works of Kotzebue* are being translated, adapted and performed in England, France and the United States. Kotzebue* is busy writing over 200 melodramas. The popularity of his works keeps the plays of better writers from becoming highly visible.

Although Kotzebue* and Pixerecourt* are the most prominent authors of melodrama, English and American playwrights will follow.

Melodrama* comes from several sources: incidental music used in spoken drama in Germany; the French melodrama* which was pantomime with music; the Gothic tales of mystery, horror, vice, virtue triumphant; the early works of Goethe* and Schiller*. Gradually the music becomes less important and the settings less Gothic, but the music will continue to be included throughout this period.

Typically melodramas* of this period combine sensational subjects, striking spectacles and humanitarian sentiments. The plots require a virtuous hero/heroine be relentlessly pursued by

a dastardly villain. The pursuit includes every imaginable threat to life and limb, reputation and happiness. All actions are shown on the stage (preferably catastrophic like earthquakes, battles and floods.) Lots of local color is included, such as festivals, dances, strange and interesting working or living conditions. A sort of formula develops to shape these plots elements. The play begins with a short expository scene to explain who's who and what's what. The scenes are episodic with lots of plot devices like disguises, mistaken identities, abductions and fortunate coincidences. There are three acts and each ends with a terrific climax. The ending is always a happy one with strict poetic justice in which virtue is rewarded and villainy defeated and punished. There is comic relief provided by servants, confidants or companions. Music is always woven in through songs, dances and underscoring of emotional scenes.

Melodramas* contain all kinds of popular entertainment plus a simple, strong story with strict moral codes. Everybody can understand them and so they are enormously popular and will dominate the nineteenth-century stage. For the first time since the Renaissance, theatre is serving a large popular audience.

In England, the craze for "Gothic" melodrama* is served by the dramatization of two novels by Matthew Gregory Lewis* (1775-1818), Ambrosio, or the Monk* (1795) and The Castle Spectre* (1797) as well as translations of thirty-two plays of Kotzebue* and numerous adaptations of Pixerecourt*'s plays.

1798 - The first use of Romanticism* as a descriptive term for the new movement shows up in the literary journal, Das Athenaeum* [see above.] The writers are attempting to clarify and develop concepts from Sturm und Drang*, the works of Goethe* and Schiller*, the writings of Kant* and other philosophers. They are trying to formulate the theoretical bases of "romantic" art.

In the United States, the John Street Theatre,* which houses The Old American Company,* has become inadequate and it is replaced. The first really important theatre, the Park Theatre*, opens in New York. It is built and managed by Hallam*, Dunlap* and Hodgkinson* who sell off the old John Street Theatre*. The Park Theatre* will have its ups and downs, but over the rest of this century every player of any importance in America will appear here.

1798 The French are still on the march. This time Napoleon Bonaparte* is off to conquer Egypt (he has in mind taking it as a first step toward India.) He will be here another year until

he begins to hear about the political mess at home.

1798 - One of the first plays produced in the new theater is Andre* with Hodgkinson* in the lead, and Cooper* as supporting actor. Dunlap* manages the theater until bankruptcy is declared in 1805. In 1807 Cooper* will take over management and the theater will begin to prosper. In 1808, a new partner, Stephen Price*, will enter the picture and Cooper* will start touring companies which include major stars.

1799 In France the corruption of the Directory* (the current government, we get the Directoire* style from this period) and a relaxation in the nation as a result of winning leads to economic crisis, political discontent and military defeats. At this point Napoleon Bonaparte* seizes power. He not only re-establishes the revolutionary institutions in France (with some of his own modifications) but exports them all over as he conquers various pieces of Europe.

He will rule as First Consul 1799-1804. He does a terrific job of getting the country out of the grip of chaos and introduces a whole range of measures that form the basis for most contemporary French institutions. Administrative law reorganizes the revolutionary "departments" (counties, states, provinces, whatever) which make up France and assigns "prefects" to be sure that centralized authority reaches all parts of the country. He fixes up the quarrel that the revolution caused between the French government and the Church (Concordant of 1801) and gets state control of all the temporal aspects of the French Church while the Pope gets to look after the spiritual.

One of the by-products of Napoleon*'s excursion into Egypt is the discovery this year of the Rosetta Stone* which enable scholars eventually to decipher Egyptian hieroglyphics.

1799 - When Napoleon* comes to power he brings some order out of the theatrical chaos, reuniting the fragments of the Comedie Francaise*.

1799 Off in India, Richard Wellesley* is honored for his progress in bringing English control to those parts by being created Marquis Wellesley (Irish peerage.) He appoints his brother, Arthur*, (later to be created the Duke of Wellington* and known as "the Iron Duke") as supreme military and political commander of the Deccan (the southern half of India.) Since the Napoleonic Wars* are about to keep Britain busy in Europe, Wellesley* has practically a free hand in India. He will be busy in India for some years.

In England, the landscape artist, Turner* (1775-1851,) exhibits the first picture of a naval engagement, "Battle of the Nile."

A perfectly preserved mammoth is found in Siberia and Russia grants a monopoly on Alaska trade to the Russia-America Company.

1800 - Pixerecourt* produces Coelina, ou l'Enfant du Mystere*, the most successful of his melodramas.* It is translated into English (by Thomas Holcraft) and appears in 1802 as the first melodrama* on the English stage. This play earns Pixerecourt* the nickname "the Corneille* of the boulevards." In England there is a new actor, George Frederick Cooke* (1756-1812) who favors realistic acting. He is a little past his prime by this year, his London debut, but after ten years in London with great success he will tour the United States. This will set an important precedent.

1800 In France the business of medical knowledge is forging ahead. Xavier Bichat* invents pathological anatomy and comes out with his systematic view of disease as a localized 1800 In France the business of medical knowledge is forging ahead. Xavier Bichat* invents pathological anatomy and comes out with his systematic view of disease as a localized

Down in Italy Count Alessandro Volta* (1745-1827) invents the voltanic 'pile,' a sort of primitive battery.

In the United States what had been known as the 'back country' is now referred to as the 'frontier.' The political scene sees the Federalist John Adams* beaten by the Republican candidate, Thomas Jefferson*.

In England the social reformer Robert Owen* takes over New Lanark mills and begins social reforms. Later he will try to export his cooperative communities" to the United States (New Harmony, Indiana, 1825-28) with little success.

1801 Thomas Jefferson* (1743-1826) becomes the third president of the United States (1801- 1809) in a close battle that is decided in the House of Representatives. [There is a tie in the popular vote with Aaron Burr.]

A Frenchman makes use of the voltanic pile to come up with electroplating. The Union Jack becomes the official flag of the Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 1802 - In Germany this year, another German romantic playwright, Lugwig Tieck* (1773-

1853) comes out with his best known tragedy, Kaiser Octavianus*. The prologue of this play is regarded by his contemporaries as characteristic of the romantics. He also writes a lot of "fantastic comedies." In England the public is crazy about melodrama* and finally there is an English play labeled as a melodrama.* Actually it is an adaptation of Pixerecourt*'s Coelina* by Thomas Holcroft* (1745-1809) which he calls A Tale of Mystery*. Melodramas* are rapidly becoming the mainstay of the minor theatres in London.

1802 Napoleon* creates the Order of the Legion of Honor* to reward both soldiers and civilians for outstanding service to the state. It carries a pension.

In England the romantic writer, Sir Walter Scott* (1771-1832,) comes out with his first important work, three volumes of Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border*.

The English pass the "Health and Morals of Apprentices" Act to protect labor in factories. 1803 France needs money and the United States buys a big hunk of the American continent

France claims to own. The Louisiana Purchase* covers all that territory from the Gulf of Mexico (New Orleans) north and west of the Mississippi River to some vague spot in the Rocky mountains.

Meanwhile, England is busy coping with events in Europe and in India. In France Robert Fulton* (1765-1815,) an American inventor, is hired by his government to

come up with an affordable, workable steamboat. He is trying it out. Meanwhile he has invented a submarine but nobody is interested.

1804 In France Napoleon* is proclaimed Emperor by the Senate and Tribunate and crowned in the presence of the Pope (Pius VII*.) This year he also hammers out a civil code (later it will be known as the Code Napoleon* or Napoleonic Code) that confirms the legal and property rights that grew out of the revolution. This consolidates much of the concrete achievements of the revolution. Unfortunately it also results in putting efficiency ahead of individual rights and turns the country over to administrative activity and bureaucracy. By this time the brief era of peace and consolidation is over and France is once more at war. From 1803 to 1814 the French will be continuously at war. At one time or another France is fighting England, Spain, Austria, Prussia and Russia.

The only thing that makes it drag on so long is that "one time or another" business. Some of those opposing France switch sides and fight beside her. Each of the eastern countries, Austria, Prussia and Russia, at one time or another side with Napoleon* when it seems in their own interest to do so. At home in France Napoleon* makes the general Jean Bernadotte* (1763-1840) Marshal of France. He also makes Talleyrand* (1754-1838) his grand chamberlain. [This crafty politician will survive all political changes and be a powerful force in Europe.] This year Napoleon* appoints the founder of the French classical school of painting, Jacques Louis David* (1748-1825,) court painter.

In America that business of a northwest passage* is so intriguing that President Jefferson* sends out an expedition led by Meriwether Lewis* (1774-1809) and William Clark* (1770- 1838) to explore the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase and find the headwaters of the Missouri and the Columbia rivers.

1804 - By this year August Schlegel* (see above in introduction) is formulating and disseminating romantic theory in Germany (and elsewhere) through his lectures in Vienna and his published essays. He is one of the first to use classicism and romanticism as polar terms. He regards Shakespeare* as the greatest dramatist ever and translates seventeen of his plays into German. These translations become the mainstay of German repertory productions into the twentieth century. Mood, emotion and character are Schlegel*'s idea of the main ingredients of drama. Schlegel* also, this year, becomes closely associated with Madame de Stael* (1766-1817, actually she is Anne Louise Germaine, nee Necker, Baronne de Stael- Holstein, but we'll call her by the shorter form.) She is married to the Swedish minister at Paris but left France during the Revolution and was exiled by Napoleon*. She is now keeping out of Napoleon*'s way. After the fall of his empire she will go back to France and take all this German romantic stuff with her (more on her later.)

In England, Samuel Taylor Coleridge* (1772-1834), will adapt Schlegel*'s ideas. Coleridge* had visited in Germany 1798-99 and translated Schiller*'s Wallenstein* into English in 1800.

Napoleon* is a big fan of classical drama and beginning this year he offers annual prizes for new comedies and tragedies. Most of the winners are not memorable, but it's a nice idea.

1805 Wellesley* (that Englishmen rolling up India for the merchants back home) has acquired, by conquest, annexation and making alliances, control over most of the subcontinent. He comes home bringing his brother, Arthur,* with him. Arthur* will now start fighting in the Napoleonic Wars*.

Back in Europe The English aren't about to put up with Napoleon*'s closing all of Europe to British trade and Nelson* (Horatio Nelson, 1758-1805) wipes out the French and Spanish fleets in the battle at Trafalgar*. At the end of the battle, when it is won, a sharpshooter gets a bead on Nelson* and kills him. The Congreve rockets (originally constructed by Sir William Congreve*, an artillerist and not to be confused with the playwright) are reintroduced as weapons into the British army. This will prove a significant visual image for Francis Scott Key* (see below 1814.)

1805 - In Russia they finally open a state theatre in Moscow. It is staffed by the serfs which the crown purchases from other successful serf theatres belonging to several nobles.

1805-6 - In America John Howard Payne* (1791-1852) at age 14 publishes The Thespian Mirror*, a critical journal, and has a play, Julia*, produced at the Park Theatre*. Three years later he makes his debut as an actor, while continuing to write successful plays. In 1813 he goes to England where he becomes renowned as a dramatist and critic. He is the first internationally famous American dramatist. He writes the song, "Home, Sweet Home"* for one of his plays.

1806 Napoleon* puts his relatives on various thrones to consolidate his conquests. This year his brother Joseph Bonaparte* is named King of Naples and brother Louis*, King of Holland. On the war front it is a busy year: Britain blockades the French coast; Prussia declares war on France; Napoleon* is marching into Germany and issues a decree beginning the "Continental System" which closes continental ports to British vessels; Napoleon* sets up a Confederation of the Rhine and makes a kingdom out of Saxony. [With Germany such a fragmented area there is little national feeling and this fusing of tiny states into larger territorial units is much appreciated, especially since it also brings terrific career opportunities under the Napoleonic institutions based on advancement by merit.] This wipe-out in Germany brings a final end to the Holy Roman Empire (which has been neither Holy nor Roman for a very long time.) It also lays the groundwork for the eventual union of Germany (it would have happened sooner under the Austrian Emperor but the Prussians wouldn't go along.)

The British occupy the Cape of Good Hope (Africa.) 1806 - In France Napoleon* puts his organizing talents to the French theatres. He makes a

decree that all the works in the repertories of the state troupes can't be performed by anybody else. All plays have to be passed by censors. No new theatres can open without special permission. This is all very well, but the state theatres haven't been straightened out yet.

1807 - Napoleon* deals with the dilemma of who gets to be a state theatre. He authorizes four state-supported theatres. These are determined by the kind of productions they get to put on. Regular tragedy and comedy can only be done by the Comedie Francaise*. Anything regarded as "lesser" drama goes on at the Theatre de l'Imperatice* [later it will be called the Odeon*.] Grand opera and serious ballet are performed at the Opera*. Comic ballet and light opera goes on at the Opera-Comique*. These divisions and troupes will continue into the next century. Next, all but four of the minor theatres in Paris are closed (this won't last long, a few will 1807 - Napoleon* deals with the dilemma of who gets to be a state theatre. He authorizes four state-supported theatres. These are determined by the kind of productions they get to put on. Regular tragedy and comedy can only be done by the Comedie Francaise*. Anything regarded as "lesser" drama goes on at the Theatre de l'Imperatice* [later it will be called the Odeon*.] Grand opera and serious ballet are performed at the Opera*. Comic ballet and light opera goes on at the Opera-Comique*. These divisions and troupes will continue into the next century. Next, all but four of the minor theatres in Paris are closed (this won't last long, a few will

In England there is a new Lord Chamberlain, the Earl of Dartmouth, (who got the job in 1804.) He interprets the Licensing Act (which governs what plays may be produced) in a liberal fashion and encourages the establishment of minor theatres in the City of Westminster (a part of London.) This year he starts issuing permits for a number of new theatres. This is a good idea since the population of the city is growing by leaps and bounds and audiences are increasing. In 1800 there were only six theatres in the London area and by 1843 there will be twenty-one. While England tries something similar to France, keeping regular drama exclusively in the patent houses (the original Drury Lane*, The Haymarket* and Covent Garden*) these three have trouble keeping audiences in the face of the new competition. Gradually they start adding minor drama to the regular stuff and sometimes as many as three plays will be included in an evening's bill. The minor theatres counter with all kinds of devices (like changing Macbeth* into a "ballet of action" and adding songs to regular plays) to get around the prohibition against their performing regular drama. Regular plays can be billed as melodramas* if they are divided into three acts (instead of the traditional five) and some musical accompaniment added. Obviously what happens is there is less and less difference between what goes on at the patent houses and the minor theatres. They will write this into law in 1843.

1807 Another brother of Napoleon*, Jerome*, becomes King of Westphalia. France invades Portugal and the royal Portuguese family runs off to Brazil.

The United States Embargo Act against Britain and France is enacted to combat the taking of American sailors and their "impressment" into British naval service.

Fulton* has his workable and affordable steamboat, the Clermont*, in operation, steaming up to Albany and back on the Hudson River.

In the art world the English landscape painter, John Constable* (1776-1837) is working. In Germany the philosopher Hegel* (1770-1831) comes out with one of his major works,

Phanomenologie des Geistes*. He is a metaphysician with a philosophy of the Absolute. His system will come to be known as Hegelianism*.

1808 Napoleon* invades Spain and puts brother Joseph* on the Spanish throne and replaces Joseph* in Naples with another guy (Jochin Murat*.)

The Latin American colonies are cut off from Spain and Portugal by Napoleon*'s subjection of the mother countries. This leads to Latin American wars of independence with Spain.

Portugal's rulers, who are already in Brazil to escape Napoleon,* have the good sense to lead Brazil to self-government. The southern revolution is spearheaded by San Martin's army of the Andes. The northern one is led by Simon Bolivar *, who has a much harder time of it with the Spanish troops. Mexico runs its own revolution.

In America, the U.S. Constitution requires that the slave trade end this year. This does not apply to internal domestic trade in slaves, but it does demand that President Jefferson* and the United States prohibit the importation of slaves from Africa (or anywhere else).

1809 - The romantic movement includes what is called "fate tragedy." This is started this year by Zacharias Werner* (1768-1823) with his play, The Twenty-Fourth of February*. It is produced at Wiemar and helps spread the influence of Schiller*. Since Werner*'s play is inspired by one of Schiller's, and, it's terrifically popular, a lot of other writers start imitating

Schiller. In Russia the government sets up a theatrical training school in conjunction with the Moscow

state theatre. In the United States the first indigenous American drama, The Indian Princess; or, La Belle

Sauvage* by James Nelson Barker* (1784-1858) is produced at the Park Theatre*. Later, it will be the first American play to be produced in England at Drury Lane*.

1809 In the United States James Madison* becomes the fourth president. In Sweden King Gustavus IV is deposed and Charles XIII* succeeds. To show how loyal to

the French they are, Jean Bernadotte* (Marshal of France) is elected Crown Prince of Sweden.

In Germany Metternich* (1773-1859, (whose full name is Prince Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk Lothar von Metternich so you see why everybody calls him by his last name) is named chief Minister of Austria. He will be an active player in European politics for years, including getting Napoleon* his second wife. Noted for his skillful diplomacy he will be largely responsible for a policy of stability of European governments and suppressing liberal ideas and revolutionary movements.

What with all this revolution business, especially the effect of France on Spain and Portugal, South American areas start breaking off from Spain. They want political freedom, administrative autonomy and economic self-determination. The Portuguese royal family agrees with this and leads Brazil peacefully toward nationhood (Brazil will become an independent kingdom in 1815) but Spain tries to crush her colonies.

This year Ecuador begins to get its independence. In the north (out of Venezuela) a vigorous revolution begins, led by Simon Bolivar (1783-1830, also known as the Liberator.) It will take him, and others, quite a while to make the Spanish give up.

By this date the beginnings of the Industrial Revolution* are showing up in the coalfields of central Europe (the Ruhr, Sambre, and Meuse valleys in Germany, France and Belgium) and, on a small scale in capital cities like Paris and Berlin. English machines, plans and engines stream into Europe along with English skilled artisans and entrepreneurs.

This year the American author, Washington Irving* (1783-1859,) comes out with Rip Van Winkle*.

1810 - Madame de Stael* puts out her work, Of Germany*, which is written in French and, together with her later personal efforts, will introduce Schlegel's ideas and German Romanticism to France and Italy.

In France Pierre-Luc-Charles Ciceri* (1782-1868) has become the top designer of this period. From this date he is head designer for the Opera* but he works for just about all the other Parisian theatres too.

1810 By this time New York city is the most dynamic urban center in the New World. This year the population is 100,000 and in sixty years it will pass 1,000,000. More than two-thirds of the immigrants to the United States will pass through here. There are enormous population shifts as Europeans emigrate to the Americas, Africa, Australia and New Zealand, Indians emigrate to Indochina and Africa, and, European Russians emigrate to Siberia and North Africa. African slaves are moved to the Americas and Arabia.

This year Argentina becomes independent. In Germany the Krupp* works open at Essen. So far they just produce iron, later they will

move into armaments. 1811 - This year a German dramatist, Heinrich von Kleist* (1777-1811) comes out with his

masterpiece, The Prince of Homburg*. This poor guy has had little connection with the romantics and nobody encouraged him. He will remain almost totally unknown until Tieck* publishes his collected works in 1826. Even then it will take a while for his works to become popular, but, by 1900 he will be better regarded than most of his contemporaries and some of his plays are still prominent in German repertory.

1811 The English finally figure out that George III* is insane and the Prince of Wales becomes the Prince Regent.

A future president, William Henry Harrison* (1773-1841), defeats Tecumseh and his Indian troops at Tippecanoe, Indiana. Later he will run his political campaign on this military effort ("Tippecanoe and Tyler, Too.").

Paraguay becomes independent of Spain. The British occupy the island of Java. Jane Austen* (1775-1817,) English novelist, comes out with Sense and Sensibility*. 1812 In Europe Napoleon* controls most of western Europe. This year he makes the mistake

of trying to invade Russia. The Prussians, who think this is a neat idea, provide him with safe passage through their territory. In the United States Madison* is reelected president and Louisiana becomes a state. In reaction to the high-handedness of the British who take American sailors and "impress" them into British naval service, the rising number of "skirmishes" on the Canadian borders and other problems, the United States declares war on Britain. [This one may be remembered as the War of 1812*.]

This year Louisiana becomes a state.

The brothers Grimm*, (Jacob 1785-1863, and Wilhelm 1786-1859,) come out with what is known in English as Grimm's Fairy Tales*

1813 Napoleon* is defeated in Russia and begins the long trek home. This encourages Austria, Russia, Prussia and Britain to form an alliance and try to defeat France in Europe.

The waltz sweeps European ballrooms. This year another German philosopher, Arthur Schopenhauer* (1788-1860,) the chief

expounder of pessimism, comes out with a major work, Uber die Vierfache Wurzel des Satzes vom Zureichenden Grunde.

In Italy the prolific operatic composer, Rossini* (1792-1868) comes out with his opera, Tancredi*. He will go on to write 39 operas in all, plus many other musical works.

1813 - Another English romantic poet tries writing a play. This time it is the major theorist of romanticism in England, Samuel Taylor Coleridge* (1772-1834.) His play is called Remorse*.

One of the great English critics, William Hazlitt* (1778-1830) begins reviewing plays for the London papers this year.

1814 - In England this year Edmund Kean* (1789-1833) makes his debut at Drury Lane* in a major role. He appears as Shylock* in The Merchant of Venice* in untraditional costume and

a villainous character. The audiences love his new version. He will have a checkered career, appearing at his best in murderous villain parts, but plagued by undisciplined behavior, a terrific temper and a habit of drinking to excess. When he is good he is unbeatable, but often

he is drunk, mediocre, or absent entirely. 1814 The armies of Austria, Russia, Prussia and England converge on France. The French

people urge Napoleon* to make peace, but he won't. He is defeated and sent into exile on the island of Elba (off the west coast of Italy.)

As a reward for his efforts in leading the British forces on their drive into France through Spain, Arthur Wellesley* is created the Duke of Wellington*.

The French statesman, Talleyrand* (Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-P‚rigord, 1754-1838, a fascinating chap who plays a leading role in French governments from the revolution through 1830), is instrumental in rebuilding the government after Napoleon's* defeat earlier this year. Talleyrand* helps in restoring the Bourbons to the French throne and when Louis XVIII* takes the French throne as his hereditary right Talleyrand* becomes his minister for foreign affairs.

In England, what with all that canal building and digging coal, some people have been noticing two interesting things that show up. One is the strata (layers of different kinds of rock and soil) and the other are fossils. A canal-builder named William Smith* writes up his conclusions on the relationship between strata and fossils in a work called Strata Identified By Organized Fossils* published this year. Now this endeavor raises some perplexing religious and philosophical questions. It seems that there are some fossils of things that are no longer around and there are also fossils in upper layers that aren't there in deeper layers. This seems In England, what with all that canal building and digging coal, some people have been noticing two interesting things that show up. One is the strata (layers of different kinds of rock and soil) and the other are fossils. A canal-builder named William Smith* writes up his conclusions on the relationship between strata and fossils in a work called Strata Identified By Organized Fossils* published this year. Now this endeavor raises some perplexing religious and philosophical questions. It seems that there are some fossils of things that are no longer around and there are also fossils in upper layers that aren't there in deeper layers. This seems

This year the first practical locomotive runs at the collier at Killingworth, England. Railways will follow rapidly and the nature of transportation will change.

In the United States, the War of 1812* is still going on and during the British siege of Ft. McHenry (Baltimore harbor), what with all those British Congreve rockets flying around, Francis Scott Key* (1779-1843) writes the Star Spangled Banner*. British forces also burn Washington, D.C.. In December the Treaty of Ghent ends the war.

1815 Napoleon* escapes from Elba and rules France again for one hundred days. He is finally defeated by Wellington* at Waterloo* (near Brussels in Belgium) and this time is exiled to the island of St. Helena* (a British possession off the coast of southwest Africa.)

In the United States the War of 1812* is finally over and the country can get down to expansion and growth. But, even though the war is over, there are a few tardy battles. This is the year of the Battle of New Orleans* where the Americans defeat the British after the war is officially over, but before the confirming news of the treaty of Ghent arrives there.

Medicine takes a step forward when England forbids unqualified doctors to practice. 1816 This year a French doctor comes up with the idea of a stethoscope. This, together with

the Viennese idea of checking the condition of the heart and lungs by tapping the chest, leads to a more detailed examination of the patient.

Indiana becomes a state. The Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar grants the first German constitution. There is a big economic crisis in England which gives rise to large-scale emigration to Canada

and the United States.