The Winds Of Reformation* Begin In Germany -

The Winds Of Reformation* Begin In Germany -

In much of the Catholic church, clerics from parish priests through bishops and even the popes have been drifting into more and more greed, lust and vulgarity. Celibacy becomes rare and making money seems more important than tending their flocks. As early as 1300 the pope had developed a neat way of making money by granting a certificate of absolution (indulgences) which anyone could buy. The indulgence will provide the purchaser with absolution for any sin they might have committed. Pretty handy item. Gradually a whole cluster of practices developed in which God presumably rewarded the number of prayers, pilgrimages, contributions, cults of Saints, relics, and, of course, indulgences. In the late 1400's Pope Sixtus IV* came to grips with that concept of Purgatory* which had developed in the Middle Ages. He combined Purgatory and penance (doing something to show you were sorry for sinning) by issuing indulgences that would assure that the deceased could transfer from Purgatory to Heaven. This meant that not only could you buy your own way into Heaven, now you could get a transfer for all your departed friends, relatives and loved ones. Providing, of course, you had enough money. Strangely enough this bothered some of the Christian faithful.

Ever since the Black Death* (that big bout of bubonic plague that eliminated about half of the European population back in the 1350s) the lower classes have been getting uppity. They want more say so in how things are run and they take a dim view of all this immorality and greed in the church (which runs most of their lives that their rulers don't cover.) If you remember back in the 1370's there were two different popes simultaneously and that heretical John Wyclif* (he'd been trying to reform the English church and ends up getting expelled from his teaching job at Oxford when the London church synod condemns his doctrines) starts people thinking about church reform. Wyclif had done a lot of writing and some of his ideas reach Bohemia (down there in Germany) and ring a bell with a theologian named Jan Hus* who starts preaching reform in Prague. This strikes sparks and leads to a local revolution which gets Hus* excommunicated in 1410 by his superiors and in 1411 by the Ever since the Black Death* (that big bout of bubonic plague that eliminated about half of the European population back in the 1350s) the lower classes have been getting uppity. They want more say so in how things are run and they take a dim view of all this immorality and greed in the church (which runs most of their lives that their rulers don't cover.) If you remember back in the 1370's there were two different popes simultaneously and that heretical John Wyclif* (he'd been trying to reform the English church and ends up getting expelled from his teaching job at Oxford when the London church synod condemns his doctrines) starts people thinking about church reform. Wyclif had done a lot of writing and some of his ideas reach Bohemia (down there in Germany) and ring a bell with a theologian named Jan Hus* who starts preaching reform in Prague. This strikes sparks and leads to a local revolution which gets Hus* excommunicated in 1410 by his superiors and in 1411 by the

All of which brings us to the big event that starts the ball rolling all over Europe. A Dominican preacher named Johann Tetzel* has been licensed by the pope to sell indulgences (these provide remission of punishment even for sins committed in the future) in Germany. In the spring of 1517 a lecturer of biblical studies at the University of Wittenberg hears him and really gets mad.

In October 1517 this lecturer, Martin Luther*, comes out with his 95 theses laying out the reforms needed in the church. Thanks to the availability of the printing press, the whole thing gets spread all over Germany and throughout Europe. This will destroy the unity of the Catholic Church and lead to a total shake-up of the political map of Europe. It will also totally change the structure and role of theatre.

The Reformation* starts in a very influential part of the world. Luther's part of Europe is a mess of 65 imperial cities, a patchwork of principalities, duchies and other territories within the Holy Roman Empire*. Now many of these have a lot of autonomy but the Holy Roman Emperor* rules all his territory as the Pope's temporal counterpart. So, any grievance against the Church and the Pope is also against the Emperor. Pretty tricky political situation. It will get worse.

1518 A guy called Lorens de Gominot (remember that Florentine monopoly granted by Spain ?) gets a license to import 4,000 African slaves to the Spanish American colonies.

1518 Back in Germany Luther* is supposed to be disciplined as a dangerous heretic but his local ruler, Frederick* of Saxony (one of the largest states in the Holy Roman Empire*) backs him. Political struggles are coming into the reform debate.

1518 - In Sienna (remember it's under control of Florence) the Commedia dell'Arte* group known as the Congrega dei Rozzi* is headed by Niccolo Campani* (known under his acting name as "Strascino*") who appears in one of his own plays before Pope Leo X. In this year they appear in Lo Strascino* at an Orsini wedding.

At the Court of Ferrara, Lodovico Ariosto* arranges regular performances at the court theatre. The first printing of Aeschylus* comes out. 1519 Luther is involved in a big public debate and admits he supports the ideas of Jan Hus*. Cortez* brings Arabian horses from Spain to the North American continent. 1519 Charles I* of Spain (as grandson of Emperor Maximilian I*) becomes Holy Roman

Emperor* as Charles V.* He is crowned at the traditional location, Aix-la-Chapelle. Boy will this make a difference for Spain. It will also keep him busy fighting French, Italians and Ottoman Turks.

1520 There are a lot of things going on this year -

Luther* starts publishing his ideas in a big way (24 books and pamphlets in German) and calls for a general council to look into papal abuses and develop reform of the clergy. He lays out what will become the basis of Protestantism (the name comes from the movement of protest against the Catholic Church).

Questions the basis of papal authority - Believes in going back to the Bible rather than going by religious historical

development - Calls for a priesthood of all believers" - Get rid of "indulgences" and pilgrimages - Let the clergy marry - End religious holidays and Saint's Days - Go back to the Bible for who can perform which sacraments - Celebrate Mass in the venacular (local common language) and let people take wine and bread (at the moment only the priest can do this) -

The Pope starts excommunication proceedings against Luther* and orders his books burnt (most people don't). Luther really understands the value of the print media and he and his followers have a mass propaganda going, complete with woodcut illustrations for those who can't read. Luther* retaliates with a book burning of his own at Wittenberg where he burns the excommunication Bull and some theology works. [You might observe that the Germans seem to like book burning, this will show up under Hitler 400 years later.]

This is also the beginning of the Anabaptist* movement in Germany under a guy named Thomas Munzer* (1489-1525). This Protestant movement (named for their views on the validity of baptism) emphasizes social and political aspects of religious reform, getting a really bad name for themselves at times.

The Holy Roman Empire* is full of diverse units, all with their own laws and customs (not to mention religious controversy) and these are not willing to pay taxes to support the endless wars. This leads to bankruptcy and Spanish Charles (V,* Holy Roman Emperor*) mortgages the Spanish gold from the Americas for years to come.

Some of the Hapsburg* brood marry into the ruling houses of Hungary and Austria. More imports from the Americas reach Europe - this time it's chocolate. Magellan* (a terrific Portuguese navigator, now working for the Spanish) gets around the

southern tip of South America, through the straits that will bear his name. He heads west, into the Pacific Ocean.

1520 - The most delightful (and still popular) comedy in Italian is published by that irrepressible political writer, Niccolo Machiavelli*. As mentioned earlier, it is called The Mandrake* (Mandragola*), and has original subject matter while making use of the form of Roman comedy.

1521 Magellan* gets to the Philippines where he is killed. One of his ships, under Sebastiano del Cano, continues to sail west, on home to Spain, making the first circumnavigation of the globe.

1521 A Franciscan preacher, Johann Eberlin, publishes pamphlets further developing Luther*'s views. His stuff includes:

Priest elected by the congregation - Priests can also practice trades - Stiff penalties for immoral conduct (this will blossom in the "Puritan" (keep

religion pure) movement - Get rid of adornment in houses of worship - (the Italians are busy doing just

the opposite) - No liturgical business except two priests and they can sing, read and teach only

what is in the Bible. In the largely autonomous confederation of states that make upSwitzerland, a preacher in

Zurich (Huldrych Zwingli) takes these reformsa step further, and, like the Moslems, insists on being literal aboutthe second commandment. He gets rid of all "graven images." Back inGermany some follow suit and throw out statues, pictures and thepriest's robes (just regular clothes for preachers now.)[This "down with images" business will put a real crimp in theatre.]

Meanwhile the Turks are moving up the Danube to Belgrade. 1522 Back in Germany, Luther* has to go into hiding where he writes and translates the Bible

into German (incidentally making the Saxon dialect standard for the German language.) This Bible business is a no-no because the only authorized Bible is the Latin Vulgate (written by St. Jerome in the fourth century.) Luther's* New Testament is published this year.

Meanwhile the Turks are taking the Isle of Rhodes. 1524 The French are finally thrown out of Italy. The English court gets to eat their first American turkey. In Germany the popular religious reform movements are starting. A group calling themselves

the "Heavenly Prophets", led by that Anabaptist* guy named Thomas Munzer*, claims to interpret the Bible according to the "inner light" which comes directly from God to his chosen people. [Sounds a lot like our current televangelists.] He claims the end of the world is the "Heavenly Prophets", led by that Anabaptist* guy named Thomas Munzer*, claims to interpret the Bible according to the "inner light" which comes directly from God to his chosen people. [Sounds a lot like our current televangelists.] He claims the end of the world is

1525 More than two-thirds of the imperial cities in Germany adopt Lutherism*. Meanwhile, Charles V* becomes the master of Italy using that new high tech weapon,

musketry. He defeats the Swiss as well as the French. Up in Prussia, Grand Master Albert of the Teutonic Knights turns his domain into the secular

Duchy of Brandenburg with himself as the Duke. The Medieval world is rapidly becoming transformed into the Renaissance.

In the exploration business a Florentine navigator, Giovanni Da Verrazano*, explores the coast of North America from Cape Fear (North Carolina) northwards and discovers New York and Narragansett bays and the Hudson River. (You may remember that we call the Verrazano Narrows, between Staten Island and Brooklyn, after this guy.)

Over in the East a descendant of Tamerlane* and Genghis Khan* named Babur* is starting a Mongol incursion into India where Muslim dynasties of Afgan and Turkish peoples are in control. Only the northwestern Rajputana is still Hindu.

1525 - Back in Italy, Machiavelli* comes out with a more neoclassical comedy, Clizia*, based on Plautus*' Casina*.

1526 Trading in the East keeps developing and the Portuguese are in New Guniea. Charles V* gets married to Isabella of Portugal.

The Ottoman Turks under Suleiman I* (the Magnificent) are marching over Hungary with a disciplined well armed band of janissaries* (from yeni ceri = new force.) They take the Hungarian capital of Buda and cross the Danube into Pest.

The Mongoloan, Babur,* enters Delhi and continues, over the next four years, to conquer all of Hindustan only to be chased out again.

1527 Sweden adopts Lutherism* Charles V*'s (Holy Roman Emperor*) Spanish and German mercenaries' pay hasn't come.

They invade Rome and the Vatican, sacking and pillaging as usual, killing about 4,000. The Pope is imprisoned and they demolish the old St. Peter's cathedral. Michelangelo* is commissioned to design a dome for the new one. You may notice that relations between the Church and the "Holy" Roman Emperor aren't very charitable.

1527 - In England Henry VIII* builds a House of Revels* (inside a palace) to stage court entertainments like those Italian ones.

1528 Finland adopts Lutherism*. There are severe outbreaks of plague in England. Charles V* gives Augsburg merchants the right to colonize Venezuela.

Henry VIII* wants to get a divorce from Catherine of Aragon. This will lead to a lot of trouble with the Pope.

The Reformation* begins in Scotland. 1528 - The commedia plays La Moschetta* (The Coqutte*) and Il Reduce* (currently

available as Ruzzante Returns From the Wars*) by Angelo Beolco* appear. These plays are still produced today and are available in several languages.

1529 When the current Holy Roman Emperor*, Charles V*, issues an edict that requires traditional Catholic worship be restored, six princes and 14 cities issues a protest against it. They are called the "Protesting Estates" and the term "Protestant*" is now applied to anyone leaving the Roman Church.

The Lutheran powers in Europe form a Schmalkaldic League for mutual protection against attack on the grounds of religion.

Over night the political situation in central Europe has changed. The Ottoman Turks advance as far as Vienna and Charles V* has to compromise on this religion business with the Germans to get their military help against the Turkish invasion.

The Turks are also marching south against the Shiites* in Baghdad and taking Armenia and Azerbaijan together with territories from Mesopatamia to the Persian Gulf.

An active pirate named Barbarossa* seizes part of Algiers and Tunis and ravages the coasts of Italy and Spain. He will become well-known and may rulers will try to hire him to beat up on their enemies.

1529 - We finally hear about women acting on Italian stages, especially in the professional companies of the Commedia dell'Arte*.

1530 Despite the fact that he has already been crowned, at Bologna. Pope Clement VII crowns Charles V* Holy Roman Emperor and King of Italy (which he just conquered.) This will be the last imperial investiture by a Pope. The meaning of the Holy Roman Empire is changing from the holy to the secular.

The Portuguese are busy colonizing Brazil. Charles V* reestablishes the Knights of St. John on Malta under his Genoese Admiral,

Andrea Doria.* (No doubt to help keep the Turks away from Europe.) Meanwhile Suleiman I* hires that busy pirate named Khayrad-din who becomes known in the west as Barbarossa* (Redbeard.)

1531 Great waves of superstition follow the appearance of the "Great Comet" (which we will call Haley's Comet.)

Henry VIII* wants his divorce so much that he breaks with the Roman Church and declares himself head of the English Church (which will come to be called the Anglican Church.)

1531 Erasmus* publishes the first complete edition of Aristotle*.

1532 Chaucer*'s works are published (remember that he lived and wrote c. 1340-1400.) The Reformation* begins in France. This will lead to endless "Wars of Religion" and keep

France from advancing on the social and cultural fronts.

A ribald Frenchman, Francois Rabelais*, publishes the first book of his Pantagruel*. He is known for his broad, racy humor and grotesque invention.

1533 The English playwright John Heywood* (c. 1497- c. 1580) comes out with the landmark farce Johan, Johan*.

1533 By January of this year Anne Boleyn* is pregnant with Henry VIII*'s child and the matter of a wedding and producing a legal heir becomes pressing.

Henry VIII* finally divorces (actually this divorce had been started several years earlier but it isn't legally tidy until May) Catherine of Aragon* and marries (again, he does this secretly in January but it is validated in May) Anne Boleyn*. This results in his excommunication by the Pope. In September Elizabeth* is born.

1534 In England, the political possibilities of religious reform aren't lost on Henry VIII* who wants another annulment from the church and isn't getting it. He takes the easy way out and breaks away from Rome, creating the Anglican church and taking possession of all that lovely Catholic church real estate. Henry VIII* institutes the Act of Succession and requires everyone to take an oath recognizing him as head of the Church in England. Thomas More* won't take it and is beheaded, providing a terrific character for much later plays.

In Europe the religious reform movement is shifting its emphasis from the need for everybody to read the Bible (which leads to everyone having their own interpretation of it) to more discipline and indoctrination in the particular leader's views. The best example of this trend is Luther* who regards the family as central to Christian life and composes catechisms for homes and schools to teach a firm foundation in the faith. His views are really Roman in their view of the father as ruler of the family (paterfamilias.) Fathers are urged to instill the habit of reciting the Ten Commandments, Apostle's Creed and the Lord's Prayer at meals, on rising and on going to bed. Luther*'s attitude toward women is pretty tough: it is the duty of all women to marry and bear children; "A woman does not have complete mastery over herself. God created her body that she should be with a man and bear and raise children...If women grow weary or even die while bearing children, that does no harm. Let them bear children to death, that's what they're here for." This narrows the choices available to women in Lutheran* states. Divorce becomes harder to obtain. With the catholic nunneries closed there are no celibate religious vocations left for women. John Leiden* (in Munster, Westphalia) sets up a "communist state" of Anabaptists*. The rulers don't like this popular government stuff and quite a lot of fighting is in the future of this part of Europe.

The French explorer, Jacques Cartier,* sails to North America, landing in Labrador. 1535 By this time there is so much Spanish activity in the new world that the crown appoints

a viceroy to Mexico. In the art business we find Hans Holbein*, the younger, painting everybody who is anybody.

At the moment he is doing Henry VIII*.

Charles V* is very busy fighting the Moslems, capturing Tunis and freeing 20,000 Christian slaves.

Francois Rabelais* comes out with his second racy book, Gargantua* and Part Two of Pantagruel*.

1536 Denmark adopts Lutherism* and the Reformation spreads to Norway. In England Anne Boleyn* is executed for treason, Catherine of Aragon dies (presumably of

natural causes), and Henry VIII* gets a third wife, Jane Seymour*. He begins to dismantle the vast range of monastic and ecclesiastical property, (376 religious houses are dissolved) getting very wealthy in the process.

We hear India rubber mentioned for the first time. Michelangelo* is busy in Rome painting "The Last Judgement" on the wall of the Sistine

Chapel. 1537 Jane Seymour* gives birth to a male heir, (the future Edward VI*) and dies as a result.

Henry VIII* will take his time finding another wife now that he has a male to inherit, in addition to the two female offspring.

An Italian architect, Sebastiano Serlio*, published six volumes but we will look at him a little later when he writes something about theatre.

Barbarossa* takes most of Venice's islands and fortresses in the Aegean. The Ottoman Turks now control the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean and operate in the Red Sea and Indian Ocean against the Portuguese.

1538 One of the more influential Reformation figures, John Calvin*, is thrown out of Switzerland and settles in Strasbourg, Austria.

1538 - The wide spread struggle between Protestant and Catholic is reflected in the theatre. The most forceful spokesman denouncing Catholicism is Thomas Naogeorus* who writes Pammachius*, dealing with the struggle against the Antichrist (covering more than a thousand years) and ending with a glorification of Luther as the target of antichristian forces.

A troupe of Commedia Dell'Arte* visits France. In England John Bale* (1495-1563) (actually he is Bishop of a place in Ireland) writes a

morality history play, King John*, in which John battles the evil forces of the Pope. This one is a noticeable step forward toward the development of the chronicle play*.

1539 - The Roman Church makes a rule that there can be no production of church plays without prior sanction by church officials. This pretty well ends any religious drama.

Clever devices for stage effects appear. In Florence they are filling a crystal sphere with water and lighting it from behind with candles to represent the sun. A guy called Aristotle de San Gallo* (1481-1551) comes up with this and a number of other clever adaptations of devices described by Vitruvius* and Pollux*.

1539 - The Low Countries (Netherlands, etc.) are Protestant but Catholic Spain now has control of them and tries to control the Chambers of Rhetoric*. On this date they require all plays be regulated by the church officials. The result is that dramatists become more secular and religious drama disappears.

1539 In England we have the final Act of Parliament dismantling Catholic religious sites. It includes destruction of religious shrines. All the confiscated gold and artifacts fattens the King's purse. He is now off and running in the house and palace building business. Henry VIII* also takes his fourth wife, Anne of Cleves*. This is not a productive marriage, no sex and no hope for another heir.

Hernando de Soto* (or maybe his first name is Fernando) is discovering Florida (the Seminoles, of course, already know it is there, they are discovering the Spanish.)

We hear about the first Christmas tree at Strasbourg cathedral. That public lottery business shows up in France.

A historian named Olaus Magnus* comes out with a map of the world showing some of those new discoveries and more realistic distances.

1540 Henry VIII* has his marriage with Anne annulled and looks around for somebody sexier. Meanwhile he declares himself King of Ireland and Head of the Irish Church. The Irish are still objecting to this.

Over in Switzerland that even more puritanical reformer named John Calvin* (a French preacher) has his doctrines preached in Geneva and their influence spreads like wildfire to France and other countries. Trouble is on the way. He is the most dynamic and influential leader of the Reformation*. He sets up a societal system that channels all the energies of its subjects into the service of God. Evangelists spread out over Europe winning huge bunches of converts to this strict discipline of Calvinism*. The system is administered by a hierarchy of teachers, pastors (responsible for correct doctrine), elders and deacons (to enforce the doctrine.) Every aspect of civil life is under their control. They abolish taverns and ban dancing and singing. [They don't take kindly to theatre either.] Geneva becomes known as the Protestant Rome and wields a more uncompromising authority than the papacy. Church officials are empowered to inspect all households for backsliders. As different rulers are recruited, whole populations become Protestant. In order to respond to all this, Pope Paul III* founds the Society of Jesus*. This is to be a group of militant priests dedicated to propagating the Catholic faith through education and missionary work. Actually, these guys will be of some help to the theatre since Catholics like to use it for instructing people.

Over in North America the Spanish are discovering the Grand Canyon (the Navaho and Zuni Indians are discovering the Spanish and their sheep and horses.)

1540 In Italy the native comedy has become well established. 1541 Henry VIII* takes his fifth wife, Catherine Howard*. This turns out to be another

mistake. She is a little too free with her favors and looses her head. He starts looking for number six.

In Europe the Reformation is marching on. Calvin* comes back to Geneva and in Scotland a follower, John Knox*, leads a Calvinist* Reformation. The opposition is working hard and Loyola* (1491-1556), who planned the Order, is made the first Superior (or General) of the Society of Jesus*. Later (in 1622) he will be canonized as Saint Ignatius of Loyola*.

Over in America Coronado* is exploring New Mexico, Texas, Oklahoma and eastern Kansas. Meanwhile, de Soto* is discovering the Mississippi River. (The local inhabitants are discovering European diseases, horses, sheep, and Catholicism.)

1541 An Italian called Giambattista Giraldi Cinthio* (1504-1574) comes up with a revenge tragedy (based, of course, on the Senecan revenge stuff), Orbecche*. He continues with two others in this vein, Dido* and Cleopatra*. But already the market place is affecting playwrighting and he turns to writing serious plays with happy endings because that's what audiences like.

1541-42 - In Paris they are doing cycles of the Apostle and Old Testament plays. There is also, in Bourges, a forty-day cycle of Apostle Plays.

1542 The time of the conquistadors is over and Spain appoints another viceroy, this time to Peru.

Mary* becomes the Queen of Scots at age six days. In the East the first European, Antonio da Mota*, shows up in Japan. The Jesuits* aren't far

behind. The King of Portugal sends Francis Xavier* (c. 1506-1552 and in 1622 he will become a Saint, who helps found the Jesuit order and comes to be called the "Apostle of the Indies") to Goa (India) as a missionary. He will work his way around India, converting as he goes, and arrive in Japan in seven years.

1543 Henry VIII* takes his sixth (and last) wife, Catherine Parr*. She is a really good care- taker, not only tending the ailing King but educating the three royal heirs in the range of Renaissance literature and knowledge.

In the East the Portuguese land in Japan bringing firearms with them.

A Spanish navigator (Blascoda Garay) gives Charles V* a design for a steamboat. Nothing happens on this idea. Charles is busy celebrating the marriage of his son, Philip* to Maria of Portugal.

The first Protestants are burned by the Spanish Inquisition*. The French invite Barbarossa* to Marseilles to help them in joint operations against the Duke

of Savoy. Barbarossa* sacks the Duke's town of Nice. In the spring he hits Barcelona, Spain and the costal towns of Tuscany (Italy), Naples as well as the island of Sicily on his way home to Istanbul.

1543 - That clever scenic effects man, San Gallo*, solves the problem of quickly shifting scenes by using the Greek device, the periaktoi* (a three sided thing that pivots on a central pole to show three different scenes) as described in those classical books.

1544 The Spanish discover silver mines in Peru. More money to send home. 1545 - Henry VIII* is so taken with entertainment and organization that he creates an Office

of Revels* to organize entertainments in that Revels building (see 1527) and other places. This office is under the office of the Lord Chamberlain and is to regulate, finance and produce plays and other entertainments for the court. The office, through its main positions, the Master of Revels* and his Master Clerk*, will also regulate theatre throughout England. The first permanent appointment as Master is a Sir Thomas Cawarden*.