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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter consists of the following sections: the theoretical descriptions, rationale, and action hypothesis. The theoretical descriptions consist
of the explanation of vocabulary, the nature young learners, and the notion of Play School DVD.
A. Vocabulary
1. The Nature of Vocabulary
Richard 2001:4 states that vocabulary is one of the most recognized components of language. While Hornby 1994: 1425 adds that vocabulary is total
number of words that make up a language. Furthermore, Nunan 2005: 121 states that vocabulary is the collection of words that an individual known. Clear
definition is given by Crystal. He states that vocabulary of a person is defined either as the set of all words that are understood by that person or the set of all
words likely to be used by that person when constructing new sentences Crystal, 2003: 2
From the definition above it can be defined that vocabulary is a collection of words that used by a person to construct sentences. Mastery means natural or
acquired facility in specific activity http:www.answers.comtopicmastery. Hornby 1995: 721 states that mastery is complete knowledge or great skill.
Swan, et al. 1992: 656 defines mastery as comprehensive knowledge. In line
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with the two experts, Quirk, et al. 1991: 644 states that mastery is great skill or knowledge in a particular subject or activity.
According to the discussion above, it can be constructed that vocabulary mastery is the competency to comprehend a collection of words and apply them to
construct sentences.
2. Some Aspects of Vocabulary
Thornbury 2002: 15 states that at the most level, knowing a word involves knowing its form and its meaning. Cameron 2001: 78 states that
knowing about word involves knowing about its form how it sound, how it is spelt, the grammatical changes that can be made to it, its meaning its conceptual
content and how it relates to other concepts and words and its use its patterns of occurrence with other words, and it particular types of language use. Moreover,
Ur 1996: 60-62 states that there are some aspects of vocabulary that should be taught or mastered by students in learning foreign language, as follow:
a. Form: pronunciation and spelling
The learner has to know what a word sound like its pronunciation and what it looks like its spelling. These are fairly obvious characteristics, and
one or the other will be preserved by the learner when encountering the items for the first time. In teaching, teacher need to make sure that other these
aspects, both pronunciation and spelling, are accurately presented and learned.
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b. Grammar
The grammar of new item will be necessary to be taught if this is not obviously covered by general grammatical rules. An item may have an
unpredictable change of form. Certain grammatical context may have some idiosyncratic way of connecting with this information at the same time as
teachers teach base form. When teaching the new verb, for example, the teacher must give also its past form, if this is irregular think, thought.
Similary, when teaching about noun, the teacher may wish to present its plural form, if it is irregular tooth, teeth.
c. Aspect of Meaning: denotation, connotation, appropriateness
The meaning of a word is primarily what it refers to in the real world, its denotation; this is often the sort of definition that is given in dictionary. For
example, dog denotes a kind of animal; more specifically, common, domestic carnivorous mammal; and both dark and moist mean slightly wet.
A less obvious component of the meaning of an item is its connotation; the association, or positive or negative feeling it evokes, which may or may not
be indicated in a dictionary definition. The word dog, for example, as understood by most British people, has positive connotation of friendship and
loyalty. A more subtle aspect of meaning that often needs to be taught is whether a
particular item is the appropriate one to use in a certain context or not. For example, learners may not know that weep is virtually a synonym in
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denotation with cry, but it is more formal, tends to be used in writing more than speech, and is in general much less common.
d. Aspect of meaning: meaning relationship
How the meaning of one item relates to the meaning of others can also be useful in teaching. There are various such of relationship: here are some of
the main ones. 1
Synonym; item that means the same, or nearly the same; for example bright, clever, smart may serve as the synonym of intelligent
2 Antonym: item that means the opposite; rich is the antonym of poor.
3 Hyponym: item that serves as specific examples of general concept: dog,
lion, mouse are hyponyms of animal. 4
Co-hyponym or co-ordinates: other items that are the ‘same kind of thing’; red, blue, green and brown are co-ordinates.
5 Superordinates: general concepts that ‘cover’ specific items; animal is the
superordinates of dog, lion, mouse. 6
Translation: words or expressions in the learners’ mother tongue that are more or less equivalent meaning to the item being taught.
e. Word formation
Vocabulary items, whether one-word or multy-word, can often be broken down into their component ‘bits’. Exactly how these bits are put together is
another piece of useful information-perhaps mainly for for advance learners.
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The teacher may wish to teach the common prefixes and suffixes; for example, if learners know the meaning of
sub-, un-, and –able,
this will help them guess the meaning of words like
substandard, ungrateful,
and
untranslatable
. Another way vocabulary items are built is by combining two words two nouns, or gerund and noun, or a noun and verb to make one item.
For example:
bookcase, follow-up, swimming pool.
From the explanation above it can be concluded that vocabulary mastery means the ability to spell and pronounce the words correctly, understand the
meaning of words, and use the words in a correct sentence.
3. Types of Vocabulary
Thorndike and Lorge 1990: 18 state that there are four types of vocabulary as shown below:
Table 2.1 Types of vocabulary, their features, and the implications for teaching and learning
Types of
vocabulary Number
of words
Frequency Coverage of
text Origins
Implications for teaching
and learning High-
frequency words
2000 Occur
frequently in all kinds
of text About 87
of the
running words in a
About half are
from Latin,
Spend a lot of time on
these words. Make
sure
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texts French,
or Greek they
are learned
Academic vocabulary
800 Occur
frequently in
most kinds
of texts
About 8
of the
running words
in academic
text If
learners are in upper
secondary school or in
tertiary education,
spend a lot of time on these
words. Make sure they are
learned Technical
vocabulary About
1000 to 2000
for each subject
Occur sometimes
frequently, in
specialized texts
About 3
of the
running words in a
specialized text
About two third
are from Latin,
French or Greek
Learning the subject
involves learning the
vocabulary. Subject
teachers can deal with the
vocabulary, but
the
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English teacher
can help
with learning
strategies Low-
frequency words
About 123.000
Do not
occur very frequently
About 2
or more of the words in
any text Teach
strategies for dealing with
these words. The
word themselves
do not
deserve teaching time
Based on the four types of vocabulary above, it can be concluded that high frequency words need to be given more attention in teaching English vocabulary
especially in elementary level. As Nunan 2003: 136 states that learners need to learn low frequency words but, except for special needs, they are best learned
after the high frequency words are known. Nation in Linse 2005: 122 also states that teachers should facilitate vocabulary learning by teaching learners useful
words and by teaching strategies to help learners figure out meanings on their
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own. What is meant by useful words here are words that children are likely to encounter-words that occur in high frequency words.
4. The Advantage of Learning Vocabulary for Children
Vocabulary becomes the main part in language learning. Notion and Waring in Cameron 2001: 72 state that vocabulary is central to the learning of a
foreign language at primary level. Gower, et al 1995:142 state that vocabulary is important to students. It is more important than grammar for communication
purposes, particularly in the early stages when students are motivated to learn the basic words they need to get by in the language. Wilkins in Thornbury 2002:13
supports this idea. He states that without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. Furthermore Nation in Schreuder
and Weltens 1993:115 states that good vocabulary knowledge enables comprehension.
Based on the statement above, it can be concluded that vocabulary is important for the learners, especially children, to learn a language.
5. Teaching Vocabulary
Nation 1974: 18-19 states that there are three things that must be taught in teaching a word. They are the form of word, the meaning of word, and the form
and the meaning of word go together. Furthermore, Nation explains that there are some ways to teach the form of word.
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a. The teacher teaches the form of word visually.
The examples of teacher teaches the form of word visually are by showing the form of word, showing the mouth movements involves in saying the
word, by showing hand movements that draw the letters of word in the air, or by showing wooden or plastic letters that spell the word.
b. The teacher teaches the form of word tactilely.
Teaching the form of word tactilely means that the learners use their sense of touch. The examples of teaching the form of word tactilely are teaching the
form of word by using letters made of wood, cardboard, sand paper, and so on, so the learners can feel the shape of the letter that make up the word, by
using a system of writing like Braille, or by writing the word, letter by letter, on the learner’s hand.
c. The teacher teaches the form of word aurally
The example of teaching the form of word aurally are teaching the form of word by saying the word or by producing the word in morse code or some
other aural code. Nunan also explains about some ways to help the learners understand the
meaning of words. They are: a.
Demonstration In demonstration, teacher explains the meaning of word by showing an
object or a cut out figure, by using gesture, or by performing an action.
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b. Picture
Teacher uses photographs, blackboard drawings, illustrations cut from magazine or newspaper to teach the meaning of word. Cameron 2001: 85
adds moving images from TV, video or computer to teach the meaning of word.
c. Explanation
To explain the meaning of word, the teacher gives description, gives synonyms or opposites, puts the word into defining context, and translates the
word.
In teaching vocabulary, the teacher is not only teaching the form and the meaning but also helping the learners to connect the form of a word with its
meaning by presenting the form and the meaning together, so that the learners know that the words are connected to each other.
Cameron 2001:87-89 states that when learners know about a new word, either the form or the meaning of this word, their vocabulary process has begun.
The word has entered the learner’s short term memory and the next teaching issue is how to build up the memory of the word so that it is available for use in the
longer term. Memorizing activities are needed at the point if learning new words for the first time, and at regular intervals to recycle vocabulary, so that it stays
active and ready to use.
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There are some organizational networks that are given by Cameron to make strong memory connections:
a. Thematic organization of vocabulary
b. Organization of vocabulary through relations of wholes to parts
c. Organization of vocabulary in general to specific hierarchies
d. Organization of vocabulary through words and antonyms
6. Motivation in Learning Foreign Language
Motivation in the classroom is an essential component. Grolnick and Ryan 1992:227 explore the central purpose of education. They state that the more
significant than the attainment of specific contents taught in schools is the growth within each child of an interest and curiosity about the world around him or her
and the development of a confidence and sense of competence in learning. Such a framework recognizes that achievement in school is a short-term goal whereas the
enhancement of the motivation to learn is an ongoing lifelong one. Motivation is the energy which supports students in achieving their need
Brown, 200: 161. Wlodkowski and Jaynes 1990:6 explain that in the broadest sense, motivation is a value and a desire for learning. Furthermore, Gardner in
William and Burden 1997: 116 defines motivation as combination of effort plus desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favorable attitudes
towards learning the language. Bonia 1997: 3 gives clear definition by stating that student’s motivation refers to a student’s willingness, need, desire, and
compulsion to participate in and be successful in the learning process.
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From the statements above, it can be concluded that motivation is the power of the students for achieving the objectives of learning and mastery the
language. There are two kinds of motivation; intrinsic motivation and extrinsic
motivation. a.
Intrinsic Motivation Intrinsic motivation is motivation which appears without needing internal
stimulus, because it has been internal to the person that is suitable with hisher need. Intrinsic motivations are inherent in learning situations and meet
pupil needs and purposes. Therefore, intrinsic motivations can be said as a kind of motivation in which the learning activities started and continued
based on internal drive and absolutely related to learning activities. As Brophy 1998: 126 states that intrinsic motivation applies students value or
can learn to participate in the activity, and emphasizes on students’ interest in engaging these activity willingly.
b. Extrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic motivation is the motivation that appears because there is stimulus incentive from outside the individual. It is a kind of motivation in
which learning activities started and continued based on external drives which are not absolutely related to learning activities. Extrinsic motivation
stimulates students to engage in classroom activity effort fully because completing these activities successfully will bring them valued rewards.
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B. The Nature of Young Learner
1. The Definition of Young Learner
The age of the students is a major factor for teacher in making decisions about how and what to teach. People of different ages have different needs,
competences, and cognitive skill. According to Linse 2005: 2 young learners are defined as children
between ages 5-12. Meanwhile Harley, et al. in Cameron 2001: 15 state that young learners is a group of children 7-8 years that are studying a foreign
language, they seem to pay more attention to sound and prosody the music of an utterance, whereas other elder children 12-14 are more attentive to cues of word
order. Furthermore Brumfit 1997: 67 states that young learners is a group of children level of age five to six, where they learn language without reading and
writing. From the explanation above it can be concludes that young learners is a
group of students level of age five to fourteen, where in every stage they have some characteristics suitable to their level of age.
2. Young Learners’ Characteristics in Learning Language
Young children, especially those up to the ages of nine or ten, learn differently from older children, adolescents, and adult. Harmer 2001:38 states
that children learn in the following ways: a.
They respond to meaning even when they do not understand individual words.
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b. They often learn indirectly rather than directly – that is they take in
information from all sides, learning from everything around them rather that only focusing on the precise topic they are being taught.
c. Their understanding come not just from explanation, but also from what they
see and hear and, crucially, have a change to touch and interact with. d.
They generally display an enthusiasm for learning and a curiosity about the world around them.
e. They have a need for individual attention and approval from the teacher.
f. They are keen to talk about themselves, and respond well to learning that uses
themselves and their own lives as main topics in the classroom. g.
They have a limited attention span; unless activities are extremely engaging they can easily get bored, losing interest after ten minutes or so.
In line with Harmer, Scotts and Ytreberg p. 1-3 determine the characters of children from five to seven years old in learning the language as follow:
a. They can talk about what they are doing.
b. They can tell you about what they have done or heard.
c. They can plan activities.
d. They can argue for something and tell you why they think what they think.
e. They can use logical reasoning.
f. They can use their vivid imaginations.
g. They can use a wide range of intonation patterns in their mother tongue.
h. They can understand direct human interaction.
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Furthermore, Scotts and Ytreberg note other characteristics of the young language learner.
a. They know that the world is governed by rules. They may not always
understand the rules, but they know that they are there to be obeyed, and the rules help to nurture a feeling of security.
b. They understand situations more quickly than they understand the language
used. c.
They use language skills long before they are aware of them. d.
Their own understanding comes through hands and eyes and ears. The physical world is dominant at all times.
e. They are very logical-what you say first happens first.
f. They have a very short attention and concentration span.
g. Young learners sometimes have difficulty in knowing what fact is and what
fiction is. h.
Young children are often happy playing and working alone but in the company of others.
i. Young children love to play, and learn best when they are enjoying
themselves. But they also take themselves seriously and like to think that what they are doing is ‘real’ work.
Based on the explanation above, the researcher can conclude that children need to be taught in different way due to their age, background and need to learn.
They need to be motivated and treated individually.
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C. Play School DVD
1. The Notion of Play School DVD
Play School is Australias most successful regular television program for pre-school children. It is broadcasted every weekday throughout the year on
ABC1 at 9.30 am and 3.00 pm and ABC2 at 4.30 pm. The first program was broadcasted on July 18, 1966 at 10.05am in NSW
and Victoria only, but soon was broadcasted around the country. In December that same year, Play School began afternoon transmissions as well as mornings, a
practice that continues to this day. Now 40 years on, over one million children view Play School each week.
Play School aims to encourage a child to wonder, to think, to feel and to imagine. The program shows two warm, caring people taking the time to be with
one child. They address the child directly and personally. Into this relationship are woven the stories, songs and activities that form the fabric of Australian childrens
culture. Play School is successful because it satisfies our basic human need to interact with other people and to be valued by them.
Play School aims to extend the childs interest and encourages participation. Each program contains a story, some songs both traditional and
new and a variety of play ideas with things to make and do. http:www.abc.net.auchildrenplayabout.html
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2. The Procedure of Teaching Vocabulary by Using Play School DVD
There are several steps that will be done in teaching vocabulary by using play school DVD. First, the teacher plays some sequences of Play School DVD.
Second, the teacher shows up some pictures that demonstrate the meaning of the words shown up on the segment of Play School DVD.
The third step is the teacher plays the segment of Play School DVD. The teacher asks the students to listen to the pre taught vocabulary. When the students
think that they hear one of the words from the pre taught vocabulary, they raise their hands. The teacher pauses DVD and then asks the students what word he
she heard. The teacher rewinds the DVD so that the students can listen to the word again. The teacher pauses DVD and asks the students to imitate what is said
by the native in the DVD. By doing this activity, it is hope that the students will practice on how to pronounce the words correctly and acknowledge the word
when it is constructed in a sentence. The teacher also encourages the students to interact with the Play School presenters by singing along and doing action as
requested. Fourth, the teacher shows the pictures of the pre taught vocabulary again
and asks the students to spell the word. The teacher then writes the word on the board and asks the students to pronounce it. The fifth step is the teacher plays the
segment of Play School DVD again and pauses on the segment where the pre taught vocabulary used. The teacher says the phrase or sentence where the pre
taught vocabulary is constructed into and asks the students to repeat the sentence.
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The final step is the teacher asks the students to make a phrase or sentence based on the word of pre taught vocabulary Uni-Bridge English Language
Program Curriculum 20102011 Level 1 School Program.
3. The Advantages of the Using of Play School DVD
Using video to support the teaching and learning process will offer some unique instructional features. Video gives student one more way to experience
abstract content. Judy 2003: 309 states that video make impossible experiences possible for their viewers and provide stimulation through our dominant sense. It
provides the opportunity to show the students phenomena that would be either impossible or dangerous to view personally.
The advantages of video, in this case is the advantages of Play School DVD, in learning the language are obviously explained by Harmer 2001: 282.
There are some reasons why video can add a special, extra dimension to the learning experience:
a. Seeing language-in-use
It means that the students not only hear the language but also see the language itself. The language is conveyed through expressions, gestures, and
other visual clues.
b. Cross-cultural awareness
Video uniquely allow students a look at situations far beyond their classroom. This is especially useful if they want to see, for an example, typical
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British ‘body language’ when inviting someone out, or how American speaks to the waiter. Video is also a great value in giving students a chance to see
such things as what kinds of food people eat in other countries, and what they wear.
c. Motivation
For all the reasons so far mentioned, most students show an increased level of interest when they have to see the language in use as well as hear it, and
when this is coupled with the interesting task.
In line with Harmer, Allan 1991: 48-49 states that there are four advantages of using video in language teaching and learning. They are:
a. Video presents realistic ‘slice of life’
Video can allow the students to see the ways people communicate visually as well as verbally. It shows obviously the example of language in use. So,
video is a good means of bringing ‘slice of living language’ into the classroom.
b. Video gets students talking
The right video material can get the students talking. Its vivid presentation of settings and characters can be used to set scene for role play. It also can
present a case with such impact that it sparks off fierce debate. So that video can be a stimulus to genuine communication in the classroom by bringing out
different opinion within the group.
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c. Video provides visual support
Video helps the students in understanding a foreign language because the students are not only listening to the words but also see the word used. Video
helps the students concentrate because it provides a focus of attention while they listen.
d. Video offers variety and entertainment
As people expect to enjoy the experience of viewing, so do the students. They bring the same expectations to the experience of viewing video in the
classroom. The combination of variety, interest and entertainment that can derive from video makes it an aid which can help develop motivation in
learners.
4. The Disadvantages of the Using of Play School DVD
Watching a video can also be a passive experience. Judy 2003: 311 also states that watching motion video can be a passive even boring experience for the
learner. That is why teaching methods must be used which instead turn it into a springboard for student action and interaction.
E. Rationale
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