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Different from the previous studies, this study aims to explain discoursal distribution and sentential distribution of adverbs of stance in political speeches to
be more specific this study uses Obama’s and Clinton’s speeches. This study also
exposes the sentence linearity of adverbs of stance.
B. Theoretical Description
In this part, the researcher exposes the theories used in this study. There are several theories about discourse analysis, speech, adverbs of stance and
placement of adverbs. The theories are as follows:
1. Discourse Analysis
Discourse analysis is a broad term for the study of the ways in which language is used in texts and contexts Nordquist, 2005. According to Taylor
2013 discourse analysis is concerned with language use as a social phenomenon and therefore goes beyond one speaker or one newspaper article to find features
which have a more generalized relevance. Another theory from Wood and Kroger 2000 suggest that discourse analysis is not only about method, it is also a
perspective on the nature of language and its relationship to the central issues of
the social sciences.
2. Speech
Speech is about expressing and delivering the speaker’s ideas and feelings Lucas, 2009. There are three main types of speech namely informative,
persuasive and occasional speech Baumeyer, 2006. Informative speech is used PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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to convey information to the audience about something new or important. There are a few types of informative speeches: speeches about objects, speeches about
events, speeches about processes speeches about concepts. The Persuasive Speech challenges beliefs or assumptions. Persuasive speeches usually deal with
controversial topics. There are three main types of persuasive speeches namely speech of fact, speech of value and speech of policy. The occasional speech is
used in certain occasion Baumeyer, 2006. 3. Adverbs of Stance
Adverbs stance markers can be characterized with respect to two major parameters semantic class and placement in the clause. In addition, most stance
adverbs are similar in having scope over an entire clause and presenting the speakers attitude or framing towards the proposition in that clause Hunston
Thompson, 2001. First the semantic class of adverbs of stance. Biber et al 1999, pp. 854-
857 distinguish three main types of stance adverbs, based on semantic criteria, epistemic adverbs, attitudinal, and stylistic. These adverbs express meanings
associated with the speaker or writers attitude, or stance, towards what s\he is saying. Epistemic stance adverbs indicate how certain the speaker or writer is, or
where the information comes from. Attitudinal stance adverbs indicate feelings or judgments about what is said or written. Style stance adverbs indicate how
something is said or written HunstonThompson, 2001. The term stance is used here as a cover term for the three major domains epistemic stance
commenting on the certaintydoubt, reliability, limitation of a proposition PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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including comment on the source of information. Attitudinal stance adverbs convey the speakers attitude, feelings, or value judgments. Biber et al 1999,
p.854. Style stance adverbs describe the manner in which the information is being presented
Adverbs of stance base on epistemic criteria. Epistemic stance adverbs provide speakers comment on the status of the information presented in the main
clause. Under epistemic stance adverbs, it is possible to distinguish among several sub- class. They are adverbs of stance showing certainty, doubt, actuality, source
of knowledge, limitation and attitudinal. Adverbs of stance showing doubt and certainty show the speakers
certainty or doubt about the proposition in the clause. They include both absolute judgments of certainty and indication of belief in various levels of probability
Biber et al 1999, p.854 Certainty can be seen as a variety of epistemic modality expressed through epistemic comments. One type of epistemic comment is
certainty expressions e.g., probably, perhaps, undoubtedly that provide clues to the writer‘s certainty or assessment of the truth of a statement and qualify a
writer‘s attitude towards expressed knowledge Coates, 1983. Actuality and reality adverbs comment on the status of the proposition as real life fact Biber et
al. 1999.The adverbs of the second group indicate reality or possibility allegedly, certainly, presumably, seemingly, supposedly. The adverbs of the
third group, assuming hearers agreement, include once more the adverb apparently of the first group and the adverbs clearly, obviously of second group,
next to naturally, of course, and plainly. Adverbs of source of knowledge show PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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the source of the information reported in the associated proposition .These adverbs include adverbs such as evidently, apparently, reputedly, reportedly
which allude to evidence supporting the proposition Biber et al, 1999. Evidential primarily indicate sources of knowledge. They show the source of the information
or the evidence of what the writer proposes, which offers the reader high reliability and objectivity. It refers to the speaker or writer‘s expressed attitudes
towards knowledge, more specifically, to how they obtain and evaluate knowledge Marin-Arrese et al., 2004. Epistemic stance adverbs can mark the
limitation of the proposition. Stance adverbs commonly used to mark limitation include: generally, largely, mainly, typically Biber et al., 1999. A variety of
linguistic expressions can be used to describe a speaker‘s attitude; one of them is so-
called evaluative adverbs. Attitudinal stance adverbs convey speakers‘ personal attitudes or feelings towards the proposition e.g. likes and dislikes, evaluations of
events and personal experiences, value judgment ,or assessment of expectations e.g. fortunately, happily, interestingly, oddly, strangely, unfortunately Biber et
al., 1999, Conrad and Biber ,2000.
4. Placement of Adverbs.
