Identification of the Problems

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CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

Chapter II presents some theories and the conceptual framework that underline this study. The theoretical reviews cover the issues of speaking, content-based instruction, English for specific purposes, materials development, task-based language teaching, and tutoring in international science classes. A. Literature Review 1. Speaking a. The Nature of Speaking Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing and receiving and processing information Brown, 1994; Burns Joyce, 1997. Its form and meaning are dependent on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking. It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving. However, speech is not always unpredictable. Language functions or patterns that tend to recur in certain discourse situations e.g., declining an invitation or requesting time off from work, can be identified and charted Burns Joyce, 1997. Speaking requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary linguistic competence, but also that they understand when, why, and in what ways to produce language sociolinguistic competence. Finally, speech has its own skills, structures, and conventions different from written language Burns Joyce, 1997; Carter McCarthy, 1995; Cohen, 1996. Brown 2001: 267 cites that when someone can speak a language it means that he can carry on a conversation reasonably competently. In addition, he states that the benchmark of successful acquisition of language is almost always the demonstration of an ability to accomplish pragmatic goals through an interactive discourse with other language speakers. Brown 2007: 237 also states that social contact in interactive language functions is a key importance and in which it is not what you say that counts but how you say it what you convey with body language, gestures, eye contact, physical distance and other nonverbal messages. There are three components to make fluent in producing speech, namely vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammar. According to Walter 1973:11, speaking is one way of learning about one self. In speaking, someone must face problems that have history and relatively to other people, groups, and the predictions we have formed for living together. According to Nunan 1989: 32, successful oral communication involves several points as presented below. 1 The ability to articulate phonological features of the language comprehensibly. 2 Mastery of stress, rhythm, intonation patterns. 3 An acceptable degree of fluency. 4 Transactional and interpersonal skills.