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Newmark criticizes that equivalent effect is “illusory”. The conflict of loyalties, the gap between emphasis on the SL and TL will always remain as the
overriding problem in translation theory and practice. He suggests narrowing the gap by applying semantic and communicative translation. He affirms that only semantic
and communicative translation fulfill the two main aims of translation, which are accuracy and economy.
There are also other classifications of the types of translation. Larson 1998:17 classifies the two types of translation, literal and idiomatic translation.
Literal translation is the form-based translation that follows the form of the SL, both in the grammatical and in the diction. Meanwhile, idiomatic translation is the
meaning-based translation that attempts to communicate the meaning of the SL text in the natural form of the TL.
E. Translation Techniques
There are many kinds of translation techniques with the different ideas from the different translation experts. According to Hurtado Albir and Molina 2002:499,
translation techniques allow us to describe the actual steps taken by the translators in each textual micro-unit and obtain clear data about the general methodological option
chosen. Techniques describe the result obtained and can be used to classify different types of translation solutions.
Actually, there is a difference between translation methods and translation techniques. The translation methods affect the whole text, but the translation
techniques only affect micro-units of the text. In its correlation with the translation
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strategy is that the strategies open the way to find a suitable solution for a translation unit. The solution will be materialized by using a particular technique. Therefore,
strategies and techniques occupy different places in problem solving: strategies are part of the process, and techniques affect the result. For example, paraphrasing can be
used as the strategy of translation, and it can be an amplification as the technique used in the translated text.
There are five basic characteristics of translation techniques stated by Hurtado Albir and Molina 2002:509, as follows:
• They affect the result of the translation
• They are classified by comparison with the original
• They affect micro-units of the text
• They are by nature discursive and contextual
• They are functional
In simple words, translation techniques are the procedures to analyze and classify the way of equivalence happens and it can be applied in whatever lingual
terms. However, translation techniques are called as the realization of the decision making process, where the product can be identified on the translation result. Below
are the kinds of translation techniques that are proposed by Newmark 1988: 81-91 as follows:
1. Shift Transposition Shift Catford’s term or Transposition Vinay and Dalbernet’s term is a
translation procedure involving a change in the grammar from SL to TL
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Newmark,1988: 85. One of the type of shift found based on the data is stucture shift. This is a shift in grammatical structure including change in word order. Struture
shift occurs when an SL grammatical structure does not exist in the TL. Here is the example of the datum that belongs to this category:
SL : Sebagian besar dari zaman Majapahit 1293-1476 dan Mataram 1586-1755 masa kekaisaran, tarian topeng klasik, wayang orang, pakaian, wayang kulit dan
wayang kayu, patung-patung keagamaan, perhiasan, dan benda-benda antik serta pusaka-pusaka lainnya.
TL : Most of them were from Majapahit era 1293-1478 and Mataram era 1586- 1755 at the time of the empire, classical mask dance, human wayang drama,
dresses, leather puppet and wooden puppet, religious statues, jewelry, and antique matters, also other valuable heirlooms. p.3
SL Indonesian : Wayang Kulit
H M
TL English : Leather Puppet
M H
In Indonesian, the word “Wayang” must precede its modifier “Kulit”. Meanwhile, in English, the word “Leather” that functions as modifier precedes the word “Puppet”
having functions as the head in the noun phrase. 2. Naturalisation
This is a kind of translation technique that succeeds the borrowing transference technique. According to Newmark 1988: 82, this technique succeeds transference
and adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation. Then to the normal
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morphology word-form of the TL, for example: computer English to be komputer Indonesian.
3. Transference Loan word Borrowing This translation techniques is commonly called borrowing. Newmark calls
this technique as transference. This technique is usually applied when there is not yet an equivalent of the certain word or it is applied to appreciate the SL word term. It is
done simply by using a loan word from the SL and putting it into the TL. Generally, only cultural “object” or concept that should be transferred Newmark, 1988:81.
Here is the example of the datum related to this category: SL: Pura Mangkunegaran datum no. 005 menyimpan koleksi yang tak ternilai
harganya. p. 3 TL: Pura Mangkunegaran has invaluable collections.
Borrowing transference can be for different reasons, with the examples below being taken from usage rather than translated texts:
• the target language has no generally used equivalent. For example, the first
man-made satellites were Soviet, so for a time they were known in English as sputniks.
• the source language word sounds better more specific, fashionable, exotic
or just accepted, even though it can be translated. For example, Indonesian IT is full of terms like soft[ware], and Indonesian accountants talk of
overheads, even though these terms can be translated into Indonesian. •
to retain some feel of the source language.
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4. Cultural equivalent This is a translation technique applied to find the equivalence of the cultural
terms. Newmark states that this technique is applied when the SL cultural word is translated by a TL cultural word Newmark,1988:83. As we know, the term that is
related to cultural matters are the serious problem to find the equivalence. It also depends on translators’ competence to produce the good result of translation. Here is
the example of the datum related to the category: SL: Klenteng datum no. 49 yang berada tepat di seberang Pasar Gede ini sudah
berdiri sejak tahun 1746 M. p. 7 TL: The t emple
is located across the Pasar Gede was built in 1746 AD. 5. Literal Translation
This techniques is applied by translating word-for word translation. Newmark prefers to call it as “through translation”. Normally, literal translation should be used
only when they are already recognized terms Newmark, 1988:85. The example is the sentence I will call you that is translated into Saya akan menelpon Anda. Again,
sometimes it works and sometimes it does not. The other example from the bilingual tourism booklet is “Raja Paku Buwono II” datum no. 002 as the Indonesian cultural
term that is translated in English into “King Paku Buwono the 2
nd
”. 6.
Functional Equivalent This technique is used when a SL cultural word has no TL equivalent. This is
applied to cultural matters and requires the use of a culture free word Newmark, 1988:83. This technique is the accurate way of translating a cultural word as what
proposed by Newmark.
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The example of this category is: SL
: Wayang orang Sriwedari telah berjasa besar dalam ikut melestarikan kebudayaan bangsa, yaitu seni wayang orang, seni tari, seni busana, seni suara, serta
seni karawitan
datum no. 025, p.12 TL
: Human Wayang of Sriwedari has given a huge contribution for conservating traditional culture, such as human watang art, dabcing art, fashion art, singing art, and
Javanese orchestra art. 7.
Reduction This is a technique in which the information message is given implicitly in
the TL. In contrast, the SL information is explicit one. This technique is in contrast with amplification technique. This is rather imprecise translation techniques practiced
intuitively in some cases Newmark, 1988:90. It is to suppress a SL into item in TL. Here is the example of this category
Sl : Gladag Langen Bogan datum no. 055 sebuah penguat bagi sebutan Solo
sebagai kota yang tak pernah tidur. p. 34 TL
: Galabo emphazises more the so – called Solo as the city that never sleep
8. Synonymy
Newmark states that the word synonym is used in the sense of a near TL equivalent to an SL word in a context, where a precise equivalent may or may not
exist 1988: 84. This technique is used for an SL word where there is no clear one- to-one equivalent, and the word is not important in the text, in particular for
adjectives or adverbs of quality. The translator has to make do with it as a
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compromise, in order to translate more important segments of the text and the meaning more accurately.
Example: SL Indonesian
: Dia adalah seorang pria sejati. TL English
: He is a gentleman. From the example above, the word gentleman is translated into pria sejati since
there is no one-to-one equivalent in the TL. In here, the translator considers that pria sejati in Indonesian has the same meaning as the word gentleman in English.
9. Modulation As cited in Newmark 1988:88, Vinay and Dalbernet defines that
modulation is a variation through a change of viewpoint, of perspective and very often of category of thought. The translators usually use this technique when the TL
rejects literal translation. Example:
SL Indonesian : Dia akan menjadi seorang bapak.
TL English : He is going to have a child.
In this case, the translator tries to find the point of view of the word akan menjadi seorang bapak to be is going to have a child. Based on the literal meaning, the words
akan menjadi seorang bapak should be translated literally into is going to be a father. However, in this case the translator translates it into the same meaning is
going to have a child.
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10. Addition This technique is commonly used by using additional information. It is
usually applied in cultural-based translation Newmark, 1988: 92. Additional information in translation may take various forms:
1. within the text 2. notes at bottom of pages
3. notes at end of chapter 4. notes or glossary at end of book
Example: SL Indonesian : Sebuah taman rekreasi di Jl. Ir. Sutami yang terletak di tepi
Bengawan Solo datum no 034, p. 18 TL English : A recreation park in Jl. Ir. Sutami which located at the side of
Bengawan Solo river In this case, the additional word river in the English translation adds the clearer
information about what Bengawan Solo is as the Indonesian term.
F. Translation Techniques in Translating Cultural Terms
