School Based Curriculum Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

There are two major points that will be discussed in this chapter. The first is theoretical description of related theories to the study. The second one is the theoretical framework that would be used as the guideline to design the materials.

A. Theoretical Description

There are six topics to discuss in this section. They are School Based Curriculum, Kemp’s Instructional Design Model, Yalden’s Instructional Design Model, Theory of Writing, Teaching Writing Skill, Genre-Based Approach, and Teaching Learning Cycle.

1. School Based Curriculum

Haryati 2008: 1 defines curriculum as a set of plans and rules concern about aims, content, materials, and strategy in teaching as the direction to conduct teaching-learning activities to reach certain education purpose. Further she stated that School Based Curriculum develops by referring to the content standard, graduate competence standard, and the curriculum developing guidance by The Committee Education National Standard 2008: 1. There are seven principles that should be considered in developing School Based Curriculum Haryati, 2008: 1-2. They are 1 oriented in student’s potential, development, needs, and importance, 2 varied and integrated, 3 responsive to science, technology, and art, 4 relevant to life needs, 5 general 8 9 and continued, 6 long life education, and 7 balance between national and local needs. Based on Government Regulation or Peraturan Pemerintah PP No. 192005, eight Education National Standard or Standar Nasional Pendidikan SNP should be carried out to implement School Based Curriculum. They are 1 content standard, 2 process standard, 3 graduate competence standard, 4 educator standard, 5 equipment standard, 6 management standard, 7 funding standard, and 8 education assessment standard In School Based Curriculum, students are positioned as the subject of the education, not merely as the object. Therefore, the students play important role in the teaching-learning process. The students are more dominant than the teacher. In this curriculum, a teacher functions as the facilitator in teaching-learning process. The students have their own potency to be developed. Students’ potency will grow if they have freedom and opportunity to think independently.

2. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model

As presented by Kemp 1997: 8, there are three essential elements of instructional technology. The first is objectives. It is related to what must be learned. The second is activities and resources. It is about what procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning levels. The last is evaluation. It is related to how we will know when the required learning has taken place. The instructional design can be applied on any education level. It can be treated to single topics, to units, and then to the whole courses. 10 To obtain these three essential elements, Kemp offers eight stages of the plan. The explanation of the eight stages is as follows: Step 1. Defining Goals, Topics, and General Purposes All school systems have broad goals. The goals may be derived from society, students, and subject areas. After defining goals, the major topics which would be treated in the content area are then listed. Afterwards, teacher should list the topics. It can be sequenced according to a logical order or according to their own subject preferences or teaching experiences. How many topics should be chosen depend on many factors such as learner characteristic, time allocation, budget, facilities, resources, etc. General purposes are what students are generally expected to learn as a result of instruction Kemp, 1997: 13. The teacher expresses explicitly the general purposes from chosen topics. Step 2. Finding Out the Learner Characteristics It is essential to obtain information about the learners’ capabilities, needs, and interest. Learner characteristic would affect the selection of the topics, what depth each topic is discussed, the choice and the sequencing of objectives, and the learning activities. There are two factors that can be considered in finding out the learner characteristics namely academic and social factors. Academic factors include the number of students, the academic background, the grade point average, the level of intelligence, the reading level, the scores on standardized achievement and aptitude test, the study habits, the ability to work alone, the background in the subject or topic, the motivation for studying the subject, the expectations of the course, the vocational and the cultural aspirations. While the 11 social factors are the age, the maturity, the attention span, the special talents, the physical and emotional handicaps, the relation among students, and the socioeconomic situation. The other factors according to Kemp are the learning condition and learning style. As stated by Kemp, learning conditions refer to groups of factors that can affect a person’s ability to concentrate, absorb, and retain information Kemp, 1997: 19. Each student has certain method of learning that is more effective than others. It is called as learning styles. Step 3. Specifying Learning Objectives Each learning process expects performance and achievement levels that should be achieved in the end of the process. Those performance and achievement levels are stated in the measurable objectives. Kemp stated that objectives can be categorized into three categories. They are cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. From those three categories, cognitive domain is mostly applied in educational programs. Cognitive domain includes objective knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. In planning process, an instructional designer should consider the action verbs that are stated in specifying the learning objective because each action verb relates to certain categories of objective. Step 4. Organizing Subject Content Subject content has a close relation to the objectives and students’ needs. Therefore, it can be derived from the objectives and vice versa. In organizing the subject content, the instructional designer can apply the categories of learning 12 behavior identified by Gagne Kemp, 1997: 44. Those are facts, concepts, principles, and problem. Step 5. Developing Pre - Assessments Pre – assessments answer questions of what students has acquired the necessary prerequisites for studying the topic and what students may have already mastered about the subject to be studied Kemp, 1997: 51. There are two kinds of test that can help the material designer answers those two questions, namely prerequisite testing and pretesting. Prerequisite testing aims at obtaining information whether the students have appropriate background for the topic. The result of the prerequisite testing lets the designer know which students are ready for the topic, which one need remedial, and which are not ready yet. Therefore, the designer should start the topic at the low level of the students. The second one, pretesting, aims at obtaining information about which objectives that students have gained. Step 6. Planning Teaching Learning Activities, Resources According to Kemp, we must determine the most efficient and effective methods and then select materials to provide learning experiences that will utilize the content associated with each objective 1997: 55. There are three basic methods of teaching and learning namely presentation to a group, individualized learning, and teacher–student interaction. In presentation to a group, the teacher or student tells, shows, demonstrates, dramatizes, or presents the topic to the others. Individualized learning gives opportunity for individuals to work for themselves. In the interaction teaching learning pattern, teachers and students – or students 13 themselves – work together in small groups to discuss, question, pursue problems cooperatively, and report Kemp, 1997: 70. The planner then selects media to support the teaching learning activities. Selecting media is not an easy work. It is because of three reasons Kemp, 1997: 74. First, there are many audiovisual resources. Second, there are no clear guidelines for selecting media. The last one is just few educators have had enough experience with the resources. Step 7. Organizing Support Services Support services include funds, facilities, equipment, time, schedule, and coordinating with other activities. The planner should organize those things carefully. Fund can be categorized into two sections, namely fund during development and fund during implementation. Fund during development covers all budgets that the designer needs during the preparation of the program. In the other hand, fund during implementation covers all budgets needed when the designer implements the program. Facilities include room where the program takes place. The choice of the equipment usually depends on the materials applied. The time and schedule are the most difficult element. Coordinating and communicating with others can develop understanding and maintain good feelings. Step 8. Evaluating Students’ Achievement Evaluation is one way to measure the outcomes of the teaching learning process relating to the objectives stated in the previous step. There are two kinds of evaluation, namely formative and summative evaluation. Formative evaluation takes place during the program, while summative evaluation takes place at the end 14 of the program. Both feedbacks from the formative and summative evaluation should be used for revising and improving any parts of the instructional plan that need it Kemp, 1997: 99. The steps of Kemp’s model are represented in Figure 2.1: Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Model Taken from Kemp, 1977: 9 Kemp states that this is a flexible process. The material designer can start from any stage that he she is ready to do. The sequence and order are the designer’s choice. However, it is recommended that the designer should treat most of the eight to get the desired result. Kemp has conveyed important information in constructing instructional material. Nonetheless, a researcher will Goals, topics, and general purposes Learner Characteristics Learning Objectives Evaluation Teaching Learning Activities, Resources Pre- Assessment Support Services Revise Subject Content 15 not stick on one kind of instructional design model. The next model of instructional design is Yalden’s model.

3. Yalden’s Instructional Design Model