Theoretical Description REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

7

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

There are two main parts in this chapter, namely: theoretical description and theoretical framework. Theoretical description consists of theories that are relevant to the research and theoretical framework consists of theories that are used to answer the research problems.

2.1 Theoretical Description

Learning language is never far from linguistic and sociolinguistic. Code- switching is the part of linguistic indeed. Sari 1988: 1-2 states that code- switching is learnt to answer how the communication works well so far. It is difficult to explain how communication works well by analyzing the communication directly. Communication consists of many parts inside and it is divided into the smaller part to make the question easier to answer. Linguistics is the field to divide communication into smaller part so that it is easier to learn. Sari 1988: 1 also states a linguist is a person who masters many languages. A linguist comprehends all knowledge about languages he or she masters, including grammar. In this study, a linguist is the one who is able to use code-switching well, namely the local newspapers writers. They insert English code-switching in their articles appropriately. 8 Hockett 1960: 353 mentions the part of linguistic, namely linguistic ontogeny. He said that “the process of development of speech habits in a single person, from birth to death, is linguistic ontogeny.” It means that a person should follow a certain process in order to be able to speak. The environment plays the big role for someone’s speech ability. The environment can encourage someone to use code-switching in his or her daily communication. Code-switching also belongs to sociolinguistics. Spolsky 1998: 3 states language that is used by a society in a certain area is also affected by the social structures of the society. Even, sometimes, there is a different part about the language that is used in different village. The village is near enough and the language is the same. However, the social structure in each village is different. It affects the use of the language, especially about dialect. Sociolinguistics studies the relation between language and social structure where the speakers live. Stockwell 2002: 1 mentions that: a sociolinguistic toolkit, All language events consist of a piece of language in a social context, Every different social context determines that particular form of language, The language used in particular situations determines the nature of that social event. All language events are influenced by the social context. Indirectly, the social context in an area will influence the language that is used. It will give the dissimilarity of the language from other area. Language also influences the nature of social event when it is used. 9 Romaine 1994: 4005 states that: Sociolinguistics is the subdiscipline of linguistics which deals with the relationships between language and society. It has close connections with the social sciences, in particular, sociology, anthropology, social psychology, and education and encompasses the study of multilingualism, social dialects, conversational interaction, attitudes to language, language change, and much more. Sociolinguistic is not only the relationship between language and human being. However, language is used to communicate all social aspects in human being’s life. Valdes-Fallis 1977 as cited by Duran in Toward a Better Understanding of Code Switching and Interlanguage in Bilinguality: Implications for Bilingual Instruction explains that “code-switching is the use of two languages simultaneously or interchangeably.” Woolford 1983 as cited by Duran in Toward a Better Understanding of Code Switching and Interlanguage in Bilinguality: Implications for Bilingual Instruction says: Views code-switched sentences as resulting from a mixture of phrase structure rules extracted from two languages. She argues that phrase structure rules of the two languages can be freely mixed in the construction of the tree structures of code-switched sentences. Hence, code-switching is inserted in other language without breaking the rule of the language itself. The switched sentences are still in the grammatical correct way. 10 Chana 1984 as cited by Duran in Toward a Better Understanding of Code Switching and Interlanguage in Bilinguality: Implications for Bilingual Instruction says: Describes code-switching as the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems. The items are tied together prosodically as well as by semantic and syntactic relations equivalent to those that join passages in a single language. Therefore, inserting code-switching in a language should consider about the semantic and syntactic rules. The sentence structure should be measured so that the main point of code switching still carries on. Gardner-Chloros 1991 in the paper entitled Code-switching: Language Selection in Three Strasbourg Department Stores states that “Code-switching CS can be defined as the use of two or more languages in the same conversation or utterance.” This simpler statement clarifies that two or more different languages are often used in the same conversation. It possibly happens when the speakers master those languages indeed. Crystal 1987 as cited by Skiba in Code Switching as a Countenance of Language Interference suggests that code switching appears when a bilingual person uses element of a language in different language to speak with other bilingual person. For example, he or she lends English elements and uses them in Indonesian conversation. The interlocutor is also a bilingual person who masters both English and Indonesian. 11 Crystal 1987 as cited by Skiba in Code Switching as a Countenance of Language Interference mentions three kinds of possible reasons why people imply code-switching in their communication. The first, the notion that a speaker cannot express himherself in one language so switches to the other to compensate for the deficiency. Sometimes, the speaker who masters two languages or more, find the limitation to communicate in one language. As a result, he or she lends the words or elements from other language that he or she masters as well. Second, someone uses code-switching in the conversation or utterance for the sake of solidarity. A speaker may come to a particular social group who speak in English. In order to honor them, the speaker uses English for the conversation. Another example, an English native speaker assembles with Indonesian people who can speak both in Indonesian language and English well. The people use English for the conversation so that the native speaker can join the conversation. The last is the alteration that occurs when the speaker wishes to convey hisher attitude to the listener. The monolingual speaker speaks in their language to show the level of formality in speech. The bilingual speakers can show their formality speech by code-switching. McCormick 1994: 581 clarifies “the term ‘code-switching’ refers to the juxtaposition of elements from two or more languages or dialects.” McCormick also gives six types of code switching, namely: diglossia, situational code- switching, metaphoric code-switching, code-switching; conversational code- 12 switching; style shifting; code mixing, single-word code-switching; borrowing and integrated loanwords. Cook 1991 as cited by Skiba in Code Switching as a Countenance of Language Interference says that “code-switching may be integrated into the activities used for the teaching of a second language, institute of Linguistics’ examinations in Languages for International Communication test as one which utilizes code-switching”. The beginning students use the second language to assemble information from the material to answer comprehension questions in the first language. The next level which is advanced level, the students are asked to find topic and provide a report in the first language. Cook 1991 as cited by Skiba in Code Switching as a Countenance of Language Interference says that “a similar system may also be used whereby the teacher uses code-switching by starting the lesson in the first language and then moving into the second and back.” The approach helps the teachers to balance the use of languages within each lesson. The teacher allows switching languages at certain key points, for example during important concepts, when students are getting disturbed, during revisions or when students are admired and told off. Mattson and Burenhult 1999: 61 as cited by Sert in The Functions of Code Switching in ELT Classrooms say that there are three basic functions of code-switching which may be beneficial in language learning environments. The first is topic switch. The teachers change the language when explaining a certain topic. For example, the teacher explains the topic with the 13 mother tongue. Afterward, the teacher translates it into the second language or vice versa. The translation itself should point out the particular grammar point. Indirectly, the students will learn the second language by transferring the new content and meaning from the mother tongue language to the second language. The second is affective functions. Code-switching is used by the teacher in order to build solidarity and intimate relations with the students. However it is not always a conscious process on the part of teacher. Code-switch is used in the classroom to create a supportive language environment. The third is repetitive function. The teacher uses code-switching in the classroom to transfer the knowledge to the students for clarity. The teacher repeats what he or she says in the different language to make it clear. However, the students who have understood the teacher’s point will get bored from this method. According to Krashen’s 1993 input hypothesis as cited in Ellis 1997 second language acquisition happens when a learner understands input which contains grammatical forms. “Success is achieved by using the situational context to make massages clear and through the kinds of input modifications found in foreigner talk” Ellis, 1997: 47. Therefore, when L2 learners receive acceptable input of the target language, they would be able to produce the correct utterances. 14

2.2 Theoretical Framework