Supra-segmental features Description of Luang phonemes .1

ae [ ʔati] ʔati ‘liver’ [ ʔԑti] ʔeti ‘very’ [marmar ә] mar-mara ‘yellow’ [m ԑrmerә] mer-mera ‘red’ [ ʔidә] ʔida ‘one’ [hade] hade ‘that’ au [ ʔahu] ʔahu ‘dog’ [ ʔuhu] ʔuhu ‘breast’ [rarni] rar-ni ‘his blood’ [rurni] rur-ni ‘his bone’ [noh ә] noha ‘island’ [nuhu] nuhu ‘heshe nurses’ uo [ ʔutu] ʔutu ‘louse’ [ ʔotnә] ʔotna ‘rain’ [nuhu] nuhu ‘heshe nurses’ [noh ә] noha ‘island’ ie [ ʔirnu] ʔirnu ‘nose’ [ ʔԑrnu] ʔernu ‘go down’ [nih ә] niha ‘tooth’ [n ԑhu] nehu ‘jump’ [hadi] hadi ‘this’ [hade] hade ‘that’ eo [ ʔeʔә] ʔeʔa ‘heshe’ [ ʔoʔә] ʔoʔa ‘you sg.’ [ler ә] lera ‘sun’ [lor ә] lora ‘ocean’

2.1.5 Supra-segmental features

2.1.5.1 Stress In the phonological word, stress indicated in examples by [] preceding the stressed syllable is manifested by increased intensity and rising pitch on the stressed syllable. Stress falls on the penultimate syllable of bisyllabic roots, and remains on the root in monosyllabic roots. Stress does not move to the new penultimate syllable when affixes are added as is the case in Indonesian. Therefore, because stress is predictable it is considered to be non-phonemic in Luang. [nap ԑtnә] na-petna ‘heshe is fat’ [p ԑtannidi] petan-ni-di‘his very fatness’ [ ʔulti] ʔulti ‘skin’ [ ʔulatni] ʔulat-ni ‘his skin’ A factor that can affect the penultimate stress rule is special emphasis on the phrase level which can override word stress. This emphasis is indicated in examples by [”] preceding the stressed syllable. This occurs when the final vowels of the final words in the phonological phrase are deleted and the emphatic enclitics [-o] and [-e] are attached in their place. When this happens, the stress on the penultimate syllable of that word is overridden by phonological phrase stress which occurs on the final syllable of the phrase. [ ʔaidyԑllә handelә] ‘I came from over there’ normal stress [ ʔaidyԑllә hande”lo] ‘I came from way over there’ emphatic [ ʔitlaʔawә] ‘We are going’ normal [ ʔitlaʔa”we] ‘Here we go’ emphatic Another factor that can affect word stress is when separate grammatical words occur as one phonetic rhythm segment which can occur as the result of morphophonemic processes see §2.4 below. When this occurs the stress on the penultimate syllable of the root becomes secondary to the phrase stress on the penultimate syllable of the rhythm segment, if the adjoining word is bisyllabic. [ n̥iʔә] ‘make’ + [yatə̆ru] ‘trap’ = [n̥iʔyatə̆ru] ‘make a trap’ [ ʔaurohә] ‘I bathe’ + [ʔaʔu] ‘I’ = [ʔaurohaʔu] ‘I bathe myself’ [ n̥uri] ‘pour’ + [doyni] ‘ASP’ = [n̥urdyoyni] ‘pour it all out’ 2.1.5.2 Length The Luang language contains phonetically long consonants and vowels. This feature of length, however, is not phonemic. The long consonants are interpreted to be a sequence of two identical phonemes or two different contiguous phonemes that assimilate. They are considered to be sequences rather than units because this interpretation economizes phonemes and still corresponds to acceptable syllable patterns. Not only do these segments occur across syllable boundaries, but most occur either as the result of morphophonemic processes or the result of non-morphophonemic historical processes e.g., wolla ‘moon’. These geminate segments are produced with a noticeable delay in their release. They occur both word initially and medially. [happeʔә] ha-p-peʔa ‘older female’ [ʔittallә] ʔit-talla ‘we travel together’ [kokkoi] kok-koi ‘riddle’ [ ṃmwahә] m-mwaha ‘you sg. are tired’ [ ṇnayri] n-nayri ‘heshe wears’ [ ḷlernanә] l-lernana |n-lernana| ‘heshe gets’ 16 [ ṛrana] r-rana ‘they pick up’ 16 See footnote 33. Morpheme medially, long consonants occur as a result of several different morphophonemic processes see §2.4.2 below. [donn ә] donna ‘NEG’ [wenn ә] wenna |wenan| ‘kill’ [woll ә] wolla |wolan| ‘moon’ [tull ә] tulla |tulna| ‘help’ 2.1.5.3 Intonation A comprehensive analysis of all the intonation patterns in Luang is beyond the scope of this paper. We will, however, mention a few of the more common features. Normally on declarative statements the peak of the intonation contour coincides with the phrase final word stress. Therefore the statement will begin at mid-pitch and continue level over all the words until the syllable before the penultimate root syllable of the final word in the statement 17 . At this point the contour falls and then sharply rises on the penultimate root syllable to a higher pitch where the stress occurs on the peak syllable of the statement. Then it lowers over the last syllable of the statement. This pattern may be written as 2-1-3-1 mid-low-high-low. 2 ʔa?g edonna 1u3wen1na ‘I am not angry.’ 2 ʔaʔanu 2sukni 1en3kak1ru ‘My child likes to cry.’ 2 ʔoha 2etla 2kade1ra 3wa2wan1nu ‘The cat is on the chair’ 18 Exceptions to this 2-1-3-1 contour occur when the statement is emphasized such as when the emphatic enclitics [-e] and [-o] are used. In these cases the pitch is low on the penultimate syllable and then sharply rises on the ultimate syllable of the phrase. This pattern may be written as 2-1-3. 19 These affect the phonological word stress on the final word in the phrase. The stress on the penultimate syllable can no longer be heard because of the phrase level stress on the ultimate syllable as a result of the intonational contour. 2 ʔadonna u2wenna 2ne1ka 3ne ‘I am really not angry’ 2 ʔaydyella 2han1de3lo ‘I came from way over there’ 2 ʔitlaʔ1a4we ‘Here we go’ Questions follow a similar pattern as statements only the pitch is a bit higher and the decline on the ultimate syllable is more noticeable. This sharp decline in pitch often results in the devoicing of the ultimate syllable. 2 ʔomdyel1la 4me1ni ‘Where are you sg. going?’ 2 ʔomlya 2mwoʔ1lu 4hya1a ‘What are going to sell?’ 2mu ʔuna 1ʔo4lek1wa ‘Did you sg. eat yet?’ The exception to this rule is where special question tags are used to perform various functions. As with the exceptions for statements given above, the intonation has the effect of moving the normal word stress as it places the higher pitch and rising intensity on the ultimate syllable. 2 ʔomlyaʔa 2ʔApnu 1no4ka ‘You sg. went to Ambon and then?’ 2 ʔedonna 2nnayri 2ray1ni 4pa ‘how come She does not have any clothes on?’ 2wolanni 2woru 2 ʔo1lek4wo ‘She is two months old, right?’ 17 This statement may be just one sentence, or a thought that encompasses a number of sentences. 18 wawannu is derived from the bisyllabic root wawna. In these cases where a suffix is attached, the pitch rises with the word stress and then falls evenly over the final two syllables. 19 The peak pitch may reach level 4 or 5 depending how expressive or animated the speaker is. Discourse genre is also marked by speed and cadence. In a storytelling situation as the speaker gets to an important or exciting part of the story he or she will start talking faster, higher, and with more intensity. Instead of occurring separately, grammatical words bind together to form single rhythm units. This is explained in greater detail in §2.4below. Different genres also take on different intonational patterns. For example, procedural texts tend to have a “sing songy” up and down type rhythm i.e., first we do this, then we do this, then we do this, etc.. Hortatory genre includes long pauses between phrases. These phrases usually start off with a rapid rhythm with high intensity and pitch which gradually slows down so that by the end of the sentence the speaker becomes soft spoken.

2.2 Syllables and phoneme distribution