Perrine 1977: 88-89 gives the example of allegory through Prophet Joseph in the Bible‘s tale. In the Bible, Pharaoh has a dream in which seven fat kines are
devoured by seven lean kines and it interpreted by Prophet Joseph. The dream means Egypt enjoys seven years of fruitfulness and prosperity obeyed by seven
years of famine. The example draws allegory in which symbol is illustrated by seven and
interpreted as a period of time, fat kine as fruitfulness and prosperity, and lean kine as famine. Indeed, those symbols are used to give further
visualization to the audiences for understanding the story.
c. Figures of Speech by Contrast
The last category of figures of speech is figures of speech by contrast. It is a type of figures of speech that is used as an exaggerated expression to compare
texts. In addition, the purpose of using an exaggerated expression is intended to build the intensity in the text. It is an expression that intends to compare a word or
phrase to get the opposite meaning. Also, it is used to add an emotional context by using unusual words or phrases. Moreover, there are four types of figures of
speech by contrast as follows.
1 Paradox
Paradox is a type of figures of speech that contains expression of something strike and unusual but true. It is an expression that uses noticeable contradiction to
deliver what it really means. Moreover, paradox contains absurdity or self- contradiction on its meaning. As stated by Perrine 1977: 101, paradox is an
apparent contradiction that is somehow true. It can be seen in a situation or statement in which the part of paradox is strongly self-contradictory. In line with
Perrine, Leech 1969: 142 states that paradox always deals with a contradictory situation or statement in simple form or complex form. Thus, it can be assumed
paradox is an expression that conveys a meaning by using contradictory statement to make the sense of meaning.
In order to understand paradox, there are some examples of paradox taken from Paulo Coelho‘s novel By the River Piedra I Sat Down and Weptis presented
as follows. I knew it, I said to myself.
I knew he was going to turn my world upside down. My brain warned me, but my heart did not want
to take its advice.
Coelho, 1996: 47 All this was so new to me.
Life takes us surprise and orders us to move toward the unknown —
Even when we don‟t want to and We think we don‟t need to.
Coelho, 1996: 49 The first sentence is a paradox since it contradicts ‗brain‘ with ‗heart. It
shows the brain which conveys a thought tells to do something but the heart that conveys a feeling tells to not to. Moreover, the second sentence is also a paradox
since it contradicts ‗life that takes and orders humans to move‘ and ‗the human‘ itself. The abstract expression expresses that the life must go on while humans
agree or not. Thus, the contradiction draws a situation that conveys the logical meaning.
In addition, Perrine 1977: 101 states that paradox is able to understand through the understanding of all the conditions and circumstances involved in it.
Paradox forces the audience to examine the contradiction in paradoxical statement by understanding the words that have
more senses on its meaning. For instances
are in the expression of he who has no money for my sake can buy it, the child is the mother of the lady, and there will be a rainbow after raining. The first
expression is something illogical because it is impossible for the man who has no money but can buy something. The second expression is negotiation of meaning
in which it should be the lady who becomes a mother not the child. And, the last expression contains a paradoxical statement because somehow it is true that there
is a condition after raining, there will be a rainbow although not always appears. In conclusion, to examine a paradoxical statement, audiences should
elaborate what it actually means in the situation or statement. Perrine 1977: 102 stated that the meaning of paradox is its shocking meaning. Its seeming
impossibility startles the reader into attention. Thus, the reader can underscore the truth of what is being said beyond absurdity.
2 Irony
Perrine 1977: 104 states that irony has meanings that extend beyond its use merely as a figure of speech. It shares some similarities with paradox because
irony also deals with contradiction related to the expression and the meaning underlying the expression. Moreover, Leech 1969: 171 states irony such as the
basis of irony applied to language is the human disposition to adopt pose, or to put a mask in which the notion of disguise is particularly pertinent. It means the
expression is used to open the mask and convey the truth or the true meaning behind the expression. Thus, the significant instrument of irony is the mask of
approval as the overt meaning and the disapproval behind the mask as the covert
meaning of the expression.
There are three categories of irony which are divided into verbal irony, dramatic irony, and irony of situation Perrine, 1977: 104-109.
a Verbal Irony
Verbal irony is an expression which is the opposite of what it truly means. It can be seen that the simplest form of irony is verbal irony because it is used to
express something in everyday conversation. Somehow, the type of verbal irony is applied in sarcasm or satire and it often brings the confusion in understanding the
term. Yet, in order to give a better understanding Perrine, 1977: 104:105
defines the meaning of those terms. In general, both sarcasm and satire imply
ridicule expression but it lies on different levels in which one is on the colloquial level and the other are on the literary level. Furthermore, sarcasm term comes
from Greek la nguage which means to tear flesh. It is intended to cut someone‘s
speech or to wound someone‘s feelings or in the deep intention is to bully someone‘s feelings by using bitter or ruthless expression. For instance, in a given
situation between father and th e son, the father said to his son, ―Oh, you are a
very kind- hearted man, too kind so you hurt your mom and let her burst in tear”.
It means that the father is being sarcastic but not ironical as he intends to woundhim by saying the ridicule expression; he means what truly he says.
Meanwhile, satire is a formal form of sarcasm and it can be said through bitter or gentle expression which is applied in written texts rather than speech.
Somehow, the purpose of implying the motive is to give wound towards someon
e‘s feeling; yet, it is also to reform or at least to keep someone‘s feelings
from falling too deep in wounds. For example, the expression yes, you can enjoy your holiday and I‟ll be here for looking our mom in the hospital is satire since it
intends to give hurt in gentle expression. In addition, Perrine 1977: 105 states that irony always implies the opposite
of what it said. It needs awareness or alert in applying irony or in recognizing the subtle signs where irony is intended. It is because somehow the use of irony can
bring misunderstanding among the audiences. For instance, the expression oh What‟s a nice If you are not happy you are not able to make someone else happy
is verbal irony since it intends to say the opposite what truly means. The word ‗nice‘ truly means horrible which plays as the opposite expression. Hence, it
intends to insult, yet to convey extra dimensions to meaning. b
Dramatic Irony Then, Perrine 1977: 106-107 explains about dramatic irony that has a
different implication from verbal irony. In verbal irony, the incongruity is between what is said and what is meant while in dramatic irony, the incongruity is
not between about what the speaker says and what heshe means but what the speaker says and what the authors means. Dramatic irony is more complex than
verbal irony since it is placed to convey the author‘s ideas or attitudes. It is also
used to illuminate characters through the nature of person who utters the ideas because dramatic irony often appears in literary texts than in everyday language.
For example, a husband taste some foods that cooked by his wife, he tells to his wife that the taste of the food is really good and tasty. It is dramatic irony since
the food is actually not delicious or tasty. It conveys that the author wants to perceive the husband character of being liar in order to satisfy his wife.
Somehow, dramatic irony occurs when the audience realizes something while the characters do not notice. For instance, in Gone Girl movie, the audience
obviously notices that the protagonist character named Amy Dunne faked her missing to make her husband become a victim, yet her husband Nick Dunne does
not know. So, he tried to find her and he has suspected as the director of Amy‘s
fake missing. Thus, it clearly shows that the audiences have more knowledge than the characters through words or actions. It also creates an extra meaning to reveal
the hidden dimension of meaning. c
Irony of Situation The last category of irony is irony of situation. Perrine 1977: 108 states
that irony of situation happens when there is a discrepancy between the actual situation and those that would seem appropriate or in other words, it occurs
between what one anticipates and what truly comes to pass. Furthermore, Perrine 1977: 108-109 gives some examples of irony of situation since it needs a better
understanding. The first example is taken from O. Henry‘s short story The Gift of the Magi‟. In the short story, in order to buy a set of combs for his wife‘s hair for
Christmas, a poor young husband decides to pawn his gold watch in which the watch is his precious prized possession. Meanwhile, on another side, his wife also
sells her long brown hair as her precious prized possession to buy a fob for her husban
d‘s watch. Then, second example is taken from King Midas‘s famous fable. It is told that anything he touch turn to gold as his fondest wish, yet in the
given situation, he cannot eat because even his food turns into gold too. Those situations are ironical.
In addition, irony of situation is unexpected or in some condition is not what would seem appropriate Perrine 1977: 109. For instance, there is a situation
when someone feels lonely but at the same time heshe attended a party or being in crowds. It is ironical since it is supposed to not to be lonely at party or being in
the crowds because the situation contains many people. Thus, irony of situation adds unexpected circumstances to give an extended or intended meaning.
In conclusion, irony aims to build the valuable meaning without stating directly. Perrine 1977: 109 defines irony as a powerful device for poet in order
to communicate great ideas more than what is said. Thus, it needs careful intention and demands an exercise to reveal what it actually means.
3 Litotes
Litotes or sometimes seen as understatement is a type of figures of speech which can emphasize a truth by saying less than one meaning Perrine, 1977:
103. In line with Perrine, Leech 1969: 169 also states that litotes is certain understatement in which the user uses a negative expression instead of positive
statement to be indicated as more forceful device to state statement. It means that people use litotes to hide the truth or choose ordinary words in stating something.
In addition, litotes also defines as understatement in which the negation of the opposite is used to underscore the hidden statement
. For instance, the statement ―I am very grateful that finally you give your time to come to my hut-home with
plea sure”, it describes a form of litotes. ‗My hut-home‘ is a luxurious place that
belongs to the famous and richest business man in the town. Hence, the business man chooses the negation of opposite instead of saying the truth to show that he is
humble and low-profile. Moreover, litotes is served to express personal feelings or arguments which
expresses in over lack of commitment and it implies a desire to suppress or conceal one‘s true attitude Leech, 1969: 170. Litotes may often appear in
disparagement. For example, the statement it is not so beautiful as well, nor so magnificent as the photograph, yet it is not bad, it is more than enough a form of
litotes. The statement is indicated to conceal the argument about someone and also, it can be assumed as humiliation to someone.
4 Hyperbole
Generally speaking, this type of figures of speech deals with exaggeration in colloquial statement which is often illogical or outside the bounds of possibility.
Perrine 1977:102 stated hyperbole or overstatement is simply exaggeration which serves the truth. Furthermore, Leech 1969: 170 writes that hyperbole is
typically used in eulogy to celebrate human‘s ideal, such as ideals of love or religion and it is used to give various effects or emphasize what is said. For
instance, the statements I am dying, how dare you for waking me up in the middle of the night, I‟ll die if cannot get her love are a hyperbole since it adds an
emphasis to what it really means. The statement is not expected to be believed or it cannot be true.
In addition, somehow hyperbole is issued to inform subjective arguments or claims or even a judgement. Leech 1969: 168 states that hyperbole concerns
with personal values and sentiments in order to make subjective claims or point of view. Thus, it is difficult to decide whether the statement is hyperbole or not since
the statement depends on someone‘s personal claim or subjectivity. So, in the simplest way, it needs such a deep comprehension to dissect what actually exists
in the author‘s minds. Yet, it can be changed since it depends on the general standard of society. Furthermore, Leech 1969:168 gives an example of
hyperbole through the statement which is taken from Every Man in His Humor, “I
do honor the very flea his dog”, it is hyperbole since the truth of the statement depends on someone‘s claim. The statement means that the man feels so grateful.
It extends to the man‘s dog, and the truth is not only the dog, but also the flea of the dog.
3. Functions of Figures of Speech
