Vocabulary Learning REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

is, the form aspects inputoutput aspects and the meaning aspects of vocabulary learning. The base of this differentation is on the kind of learning which is matched with the two distinct aspects. In this case, two kinds of learning are identified, that is, explicit and implicit learning. The disctinction between explicit and implicit learning is that the formal recognition and production rely on implicit learning, while the meaning and linking aspects rely on explicit, conscious process Ellis, 1994. This implies that both receptive and productive knowledge can be acquired through implicit or unconscious learning. According to Ellis, implicit learning focuses on the stimulus and is strongly influenced by repetition. On the other hand, learning the meaning and the related aspects is done consciously. The quality of mental processing memorizing and recalling the word meaning dominated this kind of learning. Therefore, teachers are suggested to give explanation of the word meanings, assign exercises to the students, and ask them to look up in the dictionaries and to think about the meanings. c. Low Frequency Words Nation proposes four strategies in dealing with low frequency words, namely guessing words from context, deliberate learning using word cards, using word part analysis to help memory and dictionary use. 1 Word Guessing from Context The first strategy of a learner with low frequency words is guessing the words from context. Actaully, guessing the words from context is the most useful strategies of all. However, the unknown word to guess should be surrounded by supporting context which learners can comprehend Nation and Meara, 2002. Moreover, t he success of this strategy also depends on learner‟s listening and reading skill. Besides, based on guessing procedures proposed by Clarke and Nation 1980, guessing strategy will be successful if learners are able to follow the idea presented in the text and they have background knowledge of the text Coady and Nation, 1988. In L2 learning area, guessing meaning from context is included in meaning-focused input. After successfully guessing the meaning of a word, direct learning of the same word should be followed to support the learning. 2 Deliberate Learning with Word Cards The second strategy of learner with low frequency of words is to deliberate learning with word cards. Using word cards in vocabulary learning is included in deliberate one. Deliberate vocabulary learning is more effective than incidental vocabulary learning since it is more focused and goal oriented Nation and Meara, 2002. In order to be successful in this strategy, Nation 2001 suggests a set of learning guidelines through the use of word cards, which are: i retrieval rather than recognition, ii the use of appropriately sized group of cards, iii repetition spacing, iv word aloud repetition, v word processing, vi interference avoidance, vii serial learning effect avoidance; and viii the use of context when needed. 3 Memorization with Word Parts This strategy helps learners memorize unknown words by analyzing its parts. This is the third strategy used by learners from low frequency words. According to Coady and Nation 1988: 107, an unknown word can be analyzed by checking its “prefixes and stem, as a clue to its meaning”. For example the word apposition, which comes from the words ap- a form of ad-, pos and –ition. The meaning of apoosition can be obtained by relating “the meaning of the parts to the meaning of the whole word” Nation and Meara, 2002:45. This strategy requires practice and learning. However, according to Nation and Meara 2002: 45,” word part analysis is not a reliable means of guessing, but it is a very useful way of checking on the accuracy of a guess based on context clues.” 4 Dictionary Use Nation and Meara 2002 propose that there are some types of dictionary. They are monolingual, bilingual and bilingualized. They can be used receptively to support listening and reading or productively to support speaking and writing. There are some subskills in using dictionaries, as suggested by Nation and Meara 2002 Dictionary use involves numerous subskills such as reading a phonemic transcription, interpreting grammatical information, generalizing from example sentences and guessing from context to help choose from alternative meanings p.46 According to Schmitt 1997:208-210, using dictionaries is one of determination strategies which facilitates in gaining knowledge. When learners first encounter a new word they need to try and use their previous knowledge of the target language or other languages to guess its meaning. They can also guess from context or consult reference materials such as dictionaries. d. High Frequency Words Different from low frequency words, Nation 2006b states teaching and learning vocabulary with high frequency can be divided into four strands, namely meaning focused input, meaning focus output, language focused learning, and fluency development. 1 Meaning-focused Input The first strand of the four strands is meaning-focused input. Meaning focused input is included in incidental vocabulary learning through reading and listening Nation and Meara,2002. In order for this strategy to occur, non-native speakers should meet three conditions. First, only a small amount of unknown vocabulary is allowed in a text, around two per cent, or one unknown word in 50 Hu and Nation, 2000. Second, the non-native speakers should receive large amount of input at least one million tokens or more per year. Third, there should be more deliberate attention to the unknown word to increase the learning. The example of meaning-focused input is extensive reading program. If an extensive program is well-managed, well-designed, it can provide opportunities to learn and develop vocabulary knowledge. A good extensive reading program, based on what Nation and Wang 1999 state, a provides interesting materials in which learners know 98 of the running words, b inspires learners to read at least one book every two weeks, c encourages learners to read at least three books at the same level before reading at the higher level, d encourages learners to learn the unknown words in the texts deliberately, and e facilitates learners to talk and write about what they read with enough amount of time, not much. 2 Meaning-focused Output The second strand of the four strands is meaning-focused output. Learning from meaning-focused output refers to learning through speaking and writing, from receptive skill to productive skill. According to Nation and Meara 2002, the use of vocabulary in productive skill can be increased by designing activities which encourage learners to use new vocabulary, providing opportunities for learners, such as speaking activities in groups, to negotiate the meaning of unknown words, and encouraging learners to use partly known words in speaking and writing to increase their knowledge of the words. One of the powerful aspect in learning vocabulary is negotiation of meaning Nation, 2006b. However, the proportion of negotiation of words learned through spoken communication activities is still small. Nation adds that to design speaking tasks which facilitate vocabulary learning, some considerations should be put into account. Those are: 1 the target vocabualry should be included in the written input, 2 the vocabulary should be used when performing the tasks, 3 it is necessary to provide various opportunities in the task for learners to use the vocabulary, 4 learners are required to use the vocabulary in a different way from the one in the written input. 3 Language-focused Learning The third strand of the four strands is language-focused learning. Vocabulary learning in language focused learning occurs in may opportunities, such as giving deliberate attention through activities like intensive reading, making use of word cards, pre-teaching of vocabulary and deliberate learning Nation, 2006b. The most obvious place for direct vocabulary learning is in intensive reading activities. Intensive reading requires teachers and learners to work together in a text, looking at the language features and content. From vocabulary perspective, teaching unknown words can be solved by pre-teaching them, giving the meanings directly, giving training in using strategies of guessing from context, analyzing word parts, and using dictionary. The selection of which one to use depends on whether it is high frequency or low frequency word, whether it is important in the text, the nature of the word and the context in the text. 4 Frequency Development The last strand of the four strands is frequency development. It involves all the four skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing. Frequency development aims at receiving and conveying messages. According to Nation 1989 and Arevart and Nation 1991 found that an activity that is designed to bring about an increase in fluency, also resulted in a reduction of errors and an increase in grammatical complexity. As the ease increases with which learners make use of what they know, then they are able to give more attention to the quality of what they use. Developing vocabulary fluency needs several conditions. It requires familiar materials in a large number, focuses on the message, and enough pressure to learn at higher level. Vocabulary fluency development does not focus specifically on vocabulary or grammar anymore. Above that, it aims to develop fluency in listening, speaking, reading and writing Meara, 2002.

3. Learning Strategy

The concept of learning strategy has been defined by some experts. O‟Malley Chamot 1990 propose three types of strategies: metacognitive, cognitive, and socialaffective strategies. Oxford 1990 proposes two broad categories of strategies namely, direct and indirect strategies. The former includes memory, cognitive, and compensation strategies while the latter includes metacognitive, affective, and social strategies. Gu Johnson 1996 establish two main dimensions of vocabulary learning strategies for their study: metacognitive regulation and cognitive strategies which cover six subcategories namely, guessing, using a dictionary, notetaking, rehearsal, encoding, and activating. The total number of strategies in their study is 74 items. Schmitt 1997 suggests five categories of L2 vocabulary learning strategies: determination, social, memory, cognitive, and metacognitive strategies. Although the definitions may vary to each other, they aim at a similar goal, that is, to facilitate students‟ learning which in turn results in successful language learning. The following table provides the definitions of learning strategy from some experts. Table 2.2. Definitions of Learning Strategies Ellis, 1994: 531 Source Definition Stern 1983 „In our view strategy is best reserved for general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behaviour.‟ Weinstein and Mayer 1986 „Learning strategies are the behaviours and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learner‟s encoding process.‟ Chamot 1987 „Learning strategies are techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information. Rubin 1987 „Learning strategies are strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly.‟ Oxford 1990 „Language learning strategies are behaviours or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable.‟ One of the experts, Oxford, identifies the main characteristics of language learning strategies as presented in Table 2.2. It implies that language learning strategies cover various aspects of learning including goals, problems, learners, teachers, and other factor influencing the learning process. Table 2.3. Features of Language Learning Strategies Oxford, 1990:9 No Language Learning Strategies 1 Contribute the main goal, communicative competence 2 Allow learners to become more self-directed 3 Expand the role of teachers 4 Are problem-oriented 5 Are specific actions taken by the learner 6 Involve many aspects of the learner, not just the cognitive 7 Support learning both directly and indirectly 8 Are not always observable 9 Are not often conscious 10 Can be taught 11 Are flexible 12 Are influenced by a variety of factors Further, Oxford classifies language learning strategies into two major classes. Those are direct and indirect strategies. Direct strategies consist of three groups of strategies, namely; memory strategies, cognitive strategies, and compensation strategies. Each group has its own function. Memory strategies are used to memorize and recall new information, cognitive strategies are employed to comprehend and produce the language, and compensation strategies are applied to use the language in the existing gapss of knowledge. Similarly, indirect strategies are also composed of three groups of strategies, that is, meta-cognitive strategies which are applicable to organize the learning process, affective strategies which are helpful for managing emotions, and social strategies which are beneficial for learning with others. Figure 2.2. The Classification of Language Learning Strategies Oxford, 1990:15 Defining language learning strategies as the processes consciously selected by the learners to enhance their learning or use of L2, Cohen 1998:p.5 argues that L2 learner strategies cover the strategies for learning and strategies for using L2. According to Cohen, language learning strategies involve the strategies for identifying the learning material, differentiating it from other material, grouping it to make learning easier for example grouping vocabulary based on its parts of speech, repeating the contact with the material particularly through classroom tasks or take home assignments, and memorizing the material if it cannot be acquired naturally. In other wordss the strategies can be applied to cope with material during learning process. Furthermore, he mentions four subsets of strategies for using the material; 1 retrieval strategies used to recall through memory searching the language material from storage, 2 rehearsal strategies used to practice L2 structures, 3 cover strategies to create impression that they cope the material though they do not, and 4 communication strategies mainly used to convey a meaningful and informative message. O‟ Malley Chamot 1990:44-45 provide another classification of learning strategies. They classify learning strategies info three groups; metacognitive, cognitive, and affective or social strategies. First group, metacognitive strategies, includes the processes for receptive or productive language tasks such as; paying careful attention for special aspects of a learning task, planning the organization of written or spoken discourse, monitoring a comprehension task or language production, and evaluating comprehension or language production. Second group, cognitive strategies, functions for manipulating information in particular ways which improve learning. It comprises the processes of rehearsal, organization, and elaboration including inferencing, summarizing, deduction, imagery, and transfer. The third group is socialaffective strategies which involves interaction with other people in learning. It covers cooperation, questioning for clarification, and self-talk. Rubin and Thompson as cited in Nunan 1989 suggest that good or efficient learners tend to exhibit the following characteristics as they go about learning a second language. Good learners should find their own way, organise information about language, make their own opportunities, and find strategies for getting practice in using the language inside and outside the classroom. They also need to be creative and experiment with language. Good learners also learn to love with uncertainty and develop strategies for making sense of the target language. Then, they have to use mnemonic which means rhymes and word associations in order to recall what has been learned. Another criterion of good learners is to make errors work in using linguistics knowledge. Good learners