2 Gu Johnson’s Categories
In their research on vocabulary learning strategies, Gu Johnson 1996 divide the strategies into four big parts namely metacognitive, cognative, memory
and activation. The first type is metacognitive. It consists of selective attention and self-initiation. Selective attention means to identify essential words to be
comprehended while self-initiation means to use a variety of means to make the meaning of words clear. The second is cognative which consists of guessing,
using dictionaries and note-taking. The third is memory that consists of rehearsal word list and repetition and encoding association imagery, visual and auditory.
The last is activation which means to use new words in new context. The list of Gu Johnson‟s vocabulary learning strategies is shown in Table 2.5 below.
Table 2.5. Gu Johnson’s Categories of Vocabulary Learning Strategies
Gu Johnson, 1996 Strategies
Metacognitive Cognative
Memory Activation
Selective attention:
identifying essential words for
comprehension Self-initation:
Using a variety of means to make the
meaning of words clear
Guessing: activating
background knowledge, using
linguistic items Use dictionaries
Note taking Rehearsal: Word
lists, repetition,etc Encoding
association imagery, visual,
auditory, etc Using new words
in different context
3 Catalan’s Categories In her research on sex differences in L2 vocabulary learning strategies,
Catalan 2003 identifies the most and the least used strategies. Therefore, she
makes a list of ten most frequently used and ten least frequently used strategies. The list of the ten most frequently used strategies is shown in Table 2.6 below.
Table 2.6. The Ten Most Frequently Used Vocabulary Strategies Catalan, 2003:62
Strategy Rank
Percentage Male
Female Male
Female
Use a bilingual dictionary D 1
2 83,2
85,8 Take notes about the word in class C
2 2
78,1 84,8
Guess from textual context D 3
3 74,9
80,08 Ask teacher for an L1 translation D
4 5
72,8 73,2
Ask classmates for meaning D 5
4 69,2
74,8 Analyze part of speech D
6 8
64,5 71,5
Connect the word to cognates C 7
7 59,9
69,9 Use English language media C
8 9
55,9 62,6
Say word aloud when studying C 9
6 55,8
71,5 Form image of word‟s meaning C
10 56,3
Use vocabulary section in textbook C 10
61,3 D = Discover meaning
C=Consolidate meaning The participant of the research was 581 Spanish-speaking consisting of
279 male and 302 female students. The research addresses two research questions concerning the difference on the number of vocabulary learning strategies and the
distinction in the range of vocabulary learning strategies between male and female learners. The result shows the significant difference on the number of vocabulary
learning strategies used, but there is only very small difference on the rank of the ten most and ten leaast used vocabulary strategies between males and females. In
addition, the ten most frequently used strategies also indicate the balance in both sexes in terms of the number of discovering and consolidating strategies. Male
and female basically use similar vocabulary learning strategies. The use of bilingual dictionary receives highest percentage and occupies the first rank. Then,
the ten least frequently used strategies are listed in Table 2.7 below.
Table 2.7. The Ten Least Frequently Used Vocabulary Strategies Catalan, 2003:62
Strategy Rank
Percentage Male
Female Male
Female
Underline initial letter of a word 1
2 2,9
4,3 Use flash cards
2 5
7,9 7,6
Put English labels on objects 3
1 8,6
3,6 Use peg method
4 4
9,7 6,6
Group words together spatially 5
11,1 Configurate the word
6 6
11,5 8,6
Group words within a story line 7
3 12,2
6,6 Other strategies
7 9,6
Use physical action 8
9 13,3
9,9 Use semantic map
9 13,3
Skip or pass new word 10
8 14,3
9,9 Use loci method
10 9,9
4 Nation’s Categories In the taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies, Nation 2001:218
separates the aspects of vocabulary knowledge from the sources of knowledge and the learning process see table 2.8. Therefore, he makes three general strategies
of vocabulary. The first is planning, that is, choosing what and when to focus. The second strategy is sources, that is, finding information about words. The third is
process, namely, establishing vocabulary knowledge. Each general class of strategies consists of several types of strategies. First, planning the vocabulary
involves strategies in choosing words, choosing the aspects of word knowledge, choosing strategies, and planning repetition. Second, sources include the strategies
for finding information about words. They consist of the way to analyze the word, use context, consult a reference source in L1 or L2, and use parallels in L1 and
L2. Third, processes refer to the establishing knowledge which consist of noticing, retreving and generating Nation, 2001:218
Table 2.8. A Taxonomy of Kinds of Vocabulary Learning Strategies Nation, 2001: 2 18
5. Computer-Assisted Language Learning
Computer-Assissted language learning CALL is a relatively new field of study under the applied linguistics domain. The term is first agreed to express the
area of technology and second language learning at the 1983 TESOL convention in Toronto Chapelle, 2001. The term „CALL‟ still becomes the most preferable
term to use rather than Technology-Enhanced Language Learning TELL by Bush and Terry 1997
. CALL is defined as “any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language” Beatty, 2010: 7. This
definition is restricted to refer to CALL for it does not merely cover the use of the computer for enhancing langugae learning. Beatty 2010 states that CALL is a
broad field that embraces issues of materials design, information and communication technologies, pedagogical theories and modes of instruction.
Thus, Levy 1997: p.1 defines CALL as “ the search for and study of applications
of the computer in language teac hing and learning.”
The application of CALL in language teaching and learning activities has increased with the advanced development and expansion of information and
General class of strategies Types of strategies
Planning : choosing what to focus on and when to focus on it.
Choosing words Choosing the aspects of word knowledge
Choosing strategies Planning repetition
Sources: finding information about words
Analyzing the word Using context
Consulting a reference source in L1 or L2 Using parallels in L1 and L2
Processes: establishing knowledge
Noticing Retrieving
Generating
communication technologies in educational context. Levy 1990 as cited in Egbert, Chao and Hanson-Smith 1999 points out that the need for a theory of
CALL that would provide educators with a framework for teaching and learning using computer technologies. Specifically, Egbert, Chao and Hanson-Smith
1999 signify the importance of a theory of CALL for preparing and evaluating language learning with technology.
Hypothetically, a theory of CALL could assisst teachers in making decisions about ways to prepaer language learners for the high-technology
future they face. ... A theory of CALL could help educators evaluate how and which students learn with different kinds of technology, identify
factors that must be addressed in the application of the technology, and serve as a guide for research on language learning Egbert, Chao
Hanson-Smith, 1999:1 Considering to the significance of a CALL theory, Egbert, Chao and
Hanson- Smith 1999 in reviewing CALL environments claim that “ a theory of
CALL is a theory of language acquisition” p.2. Since language acquisition is generally believed as the result of an interrelation between cognitive mechanism
and environmental in turn has critical implications for CALL” Egbert, Chao Hanson-Smith,1993: p.3 In other words, to understand the role of technology in
language classroom, we can attend to a theory of SLA and its implication. From here, Egbert, Chao Hanson-Smith 1999: p.4 derive the eight principles of
CALL environments as in line with the conditions for optimal second language learning environment theories. The eight principles include interaction and
negotiation of meaning, authentic audience, authentic tasks, exposure and encouragement to produce varied and creative language, enough time and
feedback, attention to the learning process, atmosphere with an ideal stress anxiety level and finally learner autonomy.
The first principle condition for optimal language learning environments discussed is that learners must have opportunities to interact and negotiate
meaning Egbert, Chao, Hanson-Smith,1999. Interaction provides opportunities to negotiatie meaning and form, such as aking questions, requesting
for clarification, etc, so that learners receive „comprehensible input‟. i.e: understandable language that learners are exposed to Krashen 1981 as cited in
Ellis 2008: 957. In addition, Swain 1985:252 as cited in Peyton 1999: 18 states that the use of language in interaction with other “provides opportunities for
contextualized, meaningful use, to test out hypotheses about the target language, and to move the learner from purely semantic analysis of the language to a
syntactic analysis of it. The second principle of CALL is that learners can interact in the target
language with an authentic audience. Authenticity is commonly associated with genuine purposes of language use Johnston, 1999. In other words, authenticity
focuses more on the real function and meaning of language rather than form. Johnston 1999:60 defines authentic audience as “an audience that is concerned
exclusively with the meaning of the speaker‟s or writer‟s message. He claims that “electronic audiences are authentic audiences” because audiences in
computer-mediated interaction are largely concerned with the meaning of messages rather than on the form.
The third principle of optimal CALL environments is that learners are involved in authentic tasks. According to Ellis 2008 tasks should therefore
require learners to use their linguistics resources of the target language to accomplish something. Chapelle 1999 claims that tasks often refer to classroom
activities which is similar to those learners will encounter outside the classroom. Task must have goals and they carry out through students‟ engagement in goal-
oriented behavior that relies at least in part on language Chapelle, 2003:129 The fourth principle is that learners are exposed to and encouraged to
produce varied and creative language. Spolsky 1989:166 as cited in Egbert, Chao Hanson-
Smith 1999: 5 states that “the outcome of language learning depends in large measure on the amount and kind of exposure to the ta
rget language.” According to Ellis 2008 in enhancing the input, learners are exposed to and
encouraging them to produce language are important to foster learning. The fifth principle is that learners have enough time and feedback. Egbert,
Chao and Hanson-Smith 1999 suggests that learners need sufficient time and feedback to cater the formulation of ideas. Within the classroom, learners‟
individual factors may determine the time needed for each learner to finish a task well. The term „feedback‟ itself refers to “information given to learners which
they can use to revise their interlanguage” Ellis 2008: 918. The sixth principle of conditions for optimal language learning
environments is that students are guided to attend fully to the learning process. Salomon 1990 as cited in Egbert Egbert, Chao and Hanson-Smith 1999:6
indicates that to make the best of the learning opportunities given to them, students need to be “mindful” during the learning process; in that they should be
“motivated to take the opportunities” given and to be “cognitively engaged when they perform them”. Egbert, Chao and Hanson-Smith 1999 also state that to
cater learning and support cognitive engagement. “a certain degree of
metacognitive guidance instructions and examples about how to learn” is
required p.6. According to Ellis 2008 metacognitive guidance enables students to “think consciously about how they learn and how successfully they are learning
p.971. The seventh principle is learners work in an atmosphere with an ideal
stressanxiety level. Sometimes, in the learning process, learners can get bored and stressful. They also become anxious especially for learners who have low
confidence in achieving target language. Experiencing an ideal level of anxiety in the langua
ge learning environment is essential to support students‟ comfort, confidence and motivation before they are engaged and willing to express their
ideas Egbert, Chao and Hanson-Smith, 1999. Therefore, learners need to have positive atmosphere in order to encourage them to learn better.
The last principle is learner autonomy which can be defined as “people‟s ability to take charge of their own learning” Holec 19791981 as cited in Smith
2008:395. Thein 1994 as cited in Egbert, Chao and Hanson-Smith 1999:6 a learner-
centered classroom as a classroom situation that “develop learners” confidence and skills to learn autonomously and to design and coordinate tasks in
a variety of contexts. Learners have “freedom” in deciding their own learning
goals. However, the jobs of creating the boundaries in terms of modelling, mediation, and scaffolding of learning are still in the hands of the teacher as the
facilitator.
6. Interactive PowerPoint Application for Language Learning IPALL
Interactive PowerPoint for Language Learning IPALL is one of the media that is used in language learning activities. It is created by Dr. B.B.
Dwijatmoko, M.A. from Sanata Dharma University Yogyakarta. IPALL is hoped
