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2.3.1 UN’s five stage model 2001
a. Emerging presence
– provides basic information relating to respective instance such
as contact information and function of instance.
b. Enhanced presence
– provides a more updated detail informations such as recent news
and common issues.
c. Interactive presence
– provide a quality services delivery of interaction among users and
services providers.
d. Transactional
presence
– provides convenient online transaction services such as
tax payment and updating birth certificates.
e. Seamless
– provides an accessibility of whole services to all citizens.
2.3.2 Layne and Lee’s four stage model 2001
a. Catalogue
– provides basic information relating to respective instance such as contact
information and function of instance.
b. Transaction
– provides convenient online transaction services such as tax payment and
updating birth certificates.
c. Vertical integration
– integration of information and services between central and
local government.
d. Horizontal integration
– integration of information and services between all level of
government and non-government.
2.3.3 Moon’s five-stage model 2002
a. one-way communication
– provides basic information relating to respective instance such
as contact information and function of instance.
b. Two-way communication
– provide a quality services delivery of interaction among
users and services providers.
c. Service and financial transaction
– provides convenient online transaction services such as
tax payment and updating birth certificates.
d. Vertical and horizontal integration
– This is similar to the last two stages in Layne and
Lee 2001 four-stage model. This stage refers to integrating separate systems at different
levels vertical and from different departments horizontal.
e. Political participation
– promotion of political participation through services such as
online voting and surveys. Based on the above e-government stage
models, it has been identified, that all three stage models contain similar concepts, but
operates at different levels. Thus, these stage models are summarized as follow:
Web presence
: this phase is a basic form of e-government services where simple with
limited informations are posted through web sites, such as the agencys vision and mission,
and contact information. Due to the advancement
of government
capabilities, information delivery become more dynamic,
specialized and updated.
Interaction
: this phase provides simple interactions between the governments and users.
This includes e-mail systems, official forms download as well as other interactions.
Transaction
: this phase enable users to conduct complete online transactions. Citizens
can conduct self-services online such as license applications,
tax filing,
and personal
information updates.
Participation : this involve long-term goal
for e-government
development. The
governments attempt to improve political participation, citizen involvement, and politics
transparencies by offering tools such as online voting, polling and surveys.
The parameters of the above four stage models will be elaborated in Chapter 3. To
continue any further, first it is important to take a glance at the history and status of e-
government of Cambodia and Indonesia.
2.4 Cambodia and Indonesia at a glance a.
Cambodia
Kingdom of Cambodia is a country located in Southeast Asia with a total landmass of
181,035 square kilometres. It is situated Northwest and Southwest guft of Thailand,
Northeast of Laos, and East of Vietnam.
With over 14.8 million total population of which 92 are Theravada Buddhism while 8
are Muslim and Christians. These are 24 provinces including the Capital
City called Phnom Penh, which make up the first level adminitrative division. The second
level adminitrative division composed of 159 districts which are devided into communes and
quarters.
According to Central Intellengence Agency CIA, in 2010 Cambodias per capita income
and Nominal Per Capita were 2,470 and
5 1,040 respectively. Although the Capita
Income experienced rapid growth rate, it is still lower compare to other countries around the
region. Majority of rural population depend on
Agriculture practices for living. The country’s major export are rice, fish, timber, garment and
rubber.
The government
is a
constitutional monarchy
operating under
Democratic Parliamentery System.
b. Indonesia
The Republic of Indonesia RI is situated in the Southeast Asia region. It extends
to the Southeast Asia and to the Northwest of
Australian Continent. The total population in 2006 was 222
millions of which 90 are Muslim, even though it is not officially known as a Muslim country.
There are 33 provinces which are divided into regioncies and cities, which are furthure
divided into districts and village communities. Furthemore, these villages are divide into
communes and quarters. As a democratic country, trias political
system is practiced under the legislative, executive, and judical bodies. Figure 3 below
shows the map of ASEAN countries.
2.5 Status of e-government of Cambodia and Indonesia
E-government in Cambodia and Indonesia are still development process. According to
National ICT Development Authority NiDA of Cambodia, the government is currently
working on a project of the Government Administration Information System GAIS.
These includes, Electronic Approval System EAS,
real estate
registration, resident
registration and vehicle registration and the presence of the government on the World Wide
Web. Leewood Phu, 2009. While
Indonesia government
is implementing the action plan comprising of 75
programs. These programs are classified into 4 categories i.e. policy and legal framework;
human capacity building; infrastructures; and application both for the government and private
sector. Among 75 programs, 17 are already
Based on Central Intellengence Agency CIA, in 2010 Income per Capita and Nominal
per Capita was 4,200 and 3,015 respectively. The further shows that 46.4 of Gross
Domestic Product GDP contributed from the industry sector, followed by services of 37.1
and 16.5 from agriculture sector. on going, 22 are urgent and 36 are important
programs. Djoko Agung, 2003 Despite its commitment to e-government,
the government in both countries are confronted with a number of challenges that could inhibit
its effort to fully embrace e-government and achieve the above objective. One of the
Figure 3 ASEAN map Indonesia
Cambodia
6 challenges is Internet usage. Though the
Internet is the main medium to provide online services, the data Internet World State
indicates the quantity of Internet user for both countries are lower compared to other countries
around the region.
Generally, Internet user in Cambodia increase at a very low rate of less than 1
compared to its population growth rate. This is indicated in Table 1.
Table 1 Cambodian Internet User Internet World Stats, 2010
Year User
Population
2000 6,000
12,573,580 0.05
2007 44,000
13,507,538 0.33
2009 74,000
14,494,293 0.51
2010 78,000
14,753,320 0.53
On the other hand, Indonesian Internet user is increasing at rapid rate of more than 1
compare to its population growth rate as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Indonesian Internet User Internet World Stats, 2010
Year User
Population
2000 2,000,000
206,264,595 1.00
2007 20,000,000 224,481,720 8.91
2009 28,000,000 240,271,522 11.65
2010 30,000,000 242,968,342 12.35
Based on the data in Table 1 and 2, Indonesian Internet users is higher than
Cambodia’s. This is best shown in Figure 4. See the Appendix 4 to know more Internet user
in the world and Asia.
The United Nations’ Division for Public Economics
and Public
Administration UNDPEPA has developed the e-government
Index which is an indicator of the progress the UN member countries 192 countries have
made in implementing e-government services. To establish e-government index, there are
three indicators to consider. These are web presence measures which indicates stages of
government
websites. Second
is telecommunication infrastructure measures
which define the capacity of the country’s ICTs. These are evaluated through indicators such as
the Internet hosts per 10,000 people, percentage of a nation’s population online, and PCs,
telephone lines, mobile phones, and televisions per 100 people. The final indicator
is human capital measure which analysis the UNDP Human Development Index, the
Information Access Index, and urbanrural population ratio. Janet Kaaya, 2006
Due to the development of technology, Cambodia and Indonesia has shown reasonable
progress in their e-government readiness. UNDPEPA has indicated these progress
through annual
interval evaluation
e- government programme. From the evaluation, it
is clearly shown that Indonesian e-government is a little more progressive than Cambodian.
According to Yani Nurhadryani 2009 using web measure index, Indonesian government
websites provide 48 of 17 feactures which are used in the research, while there is no current
published data on Cambodian government websites during the period this research was
carried out. However, both countries still need to put more effort to develop their e-government
system if they need to provide quality e- government services compared to other South
East Asia countries. This is clearly shown in Table 3.
Table 3 E-Government Readiness for South- Eastern Asia
Country 2008 Rank
2005 Rank Singapore
23 7
Malaysia 34
43 Thailand
62 46
Philippines 66
41 Brunei
87 73
Vietnam 91
105
Indonesia 106
96 Cambodia
115 128
Myanmar 145
129 Timor-
Leste 155
144 Laos
156 147
Figure 4 The graphic of Cambodian and Indonesian Internet user.
Source : UN E-government Survey 2008
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2.6 Challenges of e-government in developing countries
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