language process the language they think is appropriate for this purpose.
The writer concludes Speaking as a skill of language. The Language has transactional and interactional function, so it is used not
only as a means of communication but also as a means of relating and building up relationship with other people. Therefore, the writer
considered speaking as the way of communicating particular issues to other people. It is understood that by speaking people are able to express
their feelings, ideas, emotions, thoughts, opinions, and bring into accord of different perspectives, deliver some purpose to the interlocutor, and also
shares information to others. Speaking is the skill that the students will be judged upon most in
real-life situations. It is an important part of everyday interaction and most often the first impression of a person is based on their ability to speak
fluently and comprehensibly. So, the teacher has a responsibility to prepare the students as much as possible to be able to speak in English in
the real world outside the classroom and the testing room.
2. The Elements of Speaking
It is very important for people who learn the language to master the elements of speaking because they can acquire the ability to communicate.
According to Harmer, there are two elements of speaking, the first is Language Feature among the elements necessary for spoken are as the
following: a. Connected speech is the modifying in sounds production or
utterances such as assimilation, omission, addition, weakened through contraction and stress patterning
b. Expressive devices are the alteration of the speed, volume, and stress of utterances to show the feeling. The use of this device
contributes the ability to convey meaning. c. Lexis and grammar related to the ability to use a number of
common lexical phrases, especially in the performance of certain language functions.
d. Negotiation language is the ability to get benefits from the negotiator language we use to seek clarification and to show the
structure of what we are saying.
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On the other hand, mental or social processing is also including the element of speaking. Here are some explanations from Harmer:
a. Language processing: the ability to process language in their own heads and put it into coherent order so that it comes out in forms
that are not only comprehensible, but also convey the meanings that are intended.
b. Interacting with others. This means that speaking also involves a good deal of listening, and understanding of how the other
participants are feeling. c. Information processing: the ability to process the information the
moment we get it.
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3. The Function of Speaking
Numerous attempts have been made to classify the function of speaking in human interaction. Based on Brown and Yule 1983 as
quoted by Richards, the functions of speaking are classified into three kinds; talk as interaction, talk as transaction, and talk as performance.
Each of these activities is quite distinct in term of form and function and requires different teaching approaches.
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Below are some explanations: a.
Talk as Interaction Talk as interaction refers to what we normally mean by
conversation and describes interaction that serves a primarily social function when people meet, they exchange greetings, engage in small
talk, recount, recent experiences, and so on because they wish to be friendly and to establish a comfortable zone of interaction with others.
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Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching. London: Pearson Education Limited, 2001, p. 269.
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Jeremy Harmer……, p. 270.
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Jack C. Richard, Teaching Listening and Speaking From Theory to Practice, Cambridge University, 2008 p. 21
The focus is more on the speaker and how they wish to present themselves to each other than on the message.
Talk as interaction has several main features as follows: 1 Has a primarily social function
2 Reflects role relationship 3 Reflects speaker identity
4 May be formal or casual 5 Uses conversational conventions
6 Reflect degrees of politeness 7 Employs many generic words
8 Uses conversational register 9 Is jointly constructed
Some of the skills involved in using teaching as interaction are the following things:
1 Opening and closing conversation 2 Choosing topic
3 Making small talk 4 Joking
5 Recounting personal incidents and experiences’ 6 Turn talking
7 Using adjacency pairs 8 Interrupting
9 Reacting to others 10 Using an appropriate style of speaking
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Mastering the art of talk as interaction is difficult and may not be a priority for all learners. However, students who do need such
skills and find them lacking report that they sometimes feel awkward and at a loss for words when they find themselves in situations that
require talk for interactions. b.
Talk as Transaction Talk as transaction refers to situations where the focus is on
what is said or done. The message and making oneself understood
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Jack C. Richard, Teaching Listening and Speaking From Theory to Practice, Cambridge University, 2008 p. 23
dearly and accurately is the central focus, rather than the participants and how they interact socially with each other.
The main features of talk as transaction are: 1 It has a primarily information focus
2 The main focus is on the message and not the participants. 3 Participants employ communications strategies to make themselves
understood. 4 There may be frequent questions, repetitions, and comprehension
checks, as in the example from the preceding classroom lesson 5 There may be negotiation and digression.
6 Linguistic accuracy is not always important.
Some of skills involved in using talk as transaction are: 1 Explaining a need or interaction
2 Describing something 3 Asking questions\
4 Asking for clarification 5 Confirming information
6 Justifying an opinion 7 Making suggestions
8 Clarifying understanding 9 Making comparison
10 Agreeing and disagreeing
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c. Talk as Performance
This refers to public Talk, that is, talk that transmits information before audience, such as classroom presentation, public
announcement, and speeches. The main features of talk as performance are:
1 A focus on both message and audience 2 Predictable organization and sequencing
3 Importance of both form and accuracy 4 Language is more like written language
5 Often monologic.
Some of the skills involved in using talk as performance are: 1 Using an appropriate format
2 Presenting information in an appropriate sequence
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Jack C. Richard, Teaching Listening and Speaking From Theory to Practice, Cambridge University, 2008 p. 25.
3 Using correct pronunciation and grammar 4 Creating an effect on the audience
5 Using appropriate vocabulary 6 Using an appropriate opening and closing.
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4. The Purposes of Teaching Speaking
