Definitions of Speaking Elements of Speaking

CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

This chapter covers some relevant theories which support the understanding of the problem formulated in Chapter I and conceptual framework focusing on the solutions of improving students‟ speaking skills by using comic strips.

A. Literature Review

1. Speaking

a. Definitions of Speaking

Many definitions about speaking have been proposed by experts in language learning. Brown 2001: 267 says when someone can speak a language it means that he can carry on a conversation reasonably competently. In addition, he states that the benchmark of successful acquisition of language is almost always the demonstration of an ability to accomplish pragmatic goals through an interactive discourse with other language speakers. According to Chaney in Kayi 2006, speaking is the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and nonverbal symbols in a variety of contexts. In line with Chaney, Shumin as cited in Richards and Renandya 2002: 204, says that speaking a foreign language requires more than knowing its grammatical and semantic rules. Learners must also acquire the knowledge of how native speakers use the language in the context of structured interpersonal exchange in which many factors interact. Nunan 2003:48 promotes that speaking is a productive oral skill and it consists of producing systematic verbal utterances to express meaning. In other words, it is the way in which we express or exchange thoughts and feelings using language. Usually, people have communicative purposes by producing the verbal utterances. They may want to give opinions, to express feelings, to retell stories, etc. In another point of view, Hornby 1995: 826 defines speaking as making use of words in an ordinary voice, uttering words, knowing and being able to use a language, expressing oneself in words, and making speech. Based on the definitions mentioned before, the researcher highlights that speaking is using verbal and nonverbal symbols to express ideas, feelings, thoughts or needs in a variety of contexts through interaction with other language speakers.

b. Elements of Speaking

Many students in Indonesia find difficulties in acquiring verbal English mostly due to the different elements found between English and Indonesian. Thus, knowing some of the elements of speaking that are necessary for oral production will help students in carrying out the verbal presentation. In reference to Harmer 2001:269-271, such elements are distinguished into two aspects. They are knowledge of language features and the ability to process information on the spot or mentalsocial processing. He adds that both knowledge of language features and the ability to process information and language on the spot are needed to be able to speak fluently. 1 Language Features Language features, involves four features: connected speech, expressive devices, lexis and grammar, and negotiation language. In connected speech, sounds are modified assimilation, omitted elision, added linking verb, or weakened through contractions and stress patterning. English speakers are expected to use connected speech in order to make the sounds flow naturally and smoothly since people do not speak in separate words but in a logical connected group of words. Here, English teachers should involve the students in activities which are designed to improve their connected speech. Native speakers of English use varied expressive devices to express what they truly feel, for example, they change the pitch and stress of particular parts of utterances, vary volume and speed, and use nonverbal cues. It shows that expressive devices contribute to the ability to convey meanings thus deploying those devices will make the students become fully effective communicators. The use of common lexical phrases especially certain language functions become the mark of spontaneous speech. It is for this reason that teachers should supply a variety of phrases for different functions such as expressing likes and dislikes, asking and giving for opinions. Negotiation language has two functions. First, asking for clarification when we are listening to someone else talk. Second, showing the structure of our thoughts or reformulating what we are saying especially if we know that we are not being understood by the listeners. In this case, we try to make our speech clearer and more comprehensible. By offerings some phrases to ask for clarification and structuring discourse, the teachers will help students a lot in maintaining effective speaking. 2 MentalSocial Processing It is necessary to realize the use of the language features mentioned above t hrough mentalsocial processing because success of speaker‟s productivity is also dependent upon the rapid processing skills. Mentalsocial processing includes three features: language processing, interacting with others, and on the spot information processing. Regarding language processing, effective speakers of English need to be able to process the language in the head and put it into coherent order, which requires the need for comprehensibility and convey of meaning. Next, while interacting with others, English speakers need to be able to speak effectively and master a good deal of listening, an understanding of how the other participants are feeling, and knowledge of turn-taking.Related to on the spot information processing, it is also important for the effective speakers of English to be able to process information that they get at the moment people tell them. Commonly, those who can give instant response are assumed as effective communicators though this instant response is often considered not good in many cultures.

c. Micro and Macro Skills of Speaking