Theoretical Description REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter, the researcher presents some theories related to the topic of the research. This chapter is divided into two parts. First part is Theoretical Description and Theoretical Framework. In the first Theoretical Description, the researcher presents overall theories which are directly relevant to the research being discussed. In the Theoretical Framework, the researcher summarizes and synthesizes all major relevant theories.

A. Theoretical Description

Since the topic of the research is study on error in using preposition and phrasal verb made by tenth graders, the researcher writes theory about errors, mistake, and preposition. 1. Errors There are four parts of errors which will be discussed in this section. First part is definition of errors, second part is causes of errors, third part is types of errors, and fourth part is mistakes. a. Definition of Errors Errors have various definitions according to some scholars. In this study, the researcher states three definitions of errors from three different scholars. First definition is from Norrish 1983:7, errors are a systematic deviation when a learner has not learnt something and consistently gets it wrong. Second, according PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI to Chomsky 1965 as cited in Dulay 1982:139, errors are resulting from lack of knowledge of the rules of language. The errors are called competence errors. The last definition is from Corder 1967 which is cited in Dulay 1982:139, errors are reserved for the systematic deviations due to the learner‟s still developing knowledge of the second language L2 system. Since the tenth graders are ESL English as Second Language students, the concept of errors is understood as what Corder has stated, that is failure to utilize a known system correctly when they are developing their ability in writing, especially the ability in choosing appropriate words for certain context. In this study, the students have lack ability in choosing the appropriate preposition in writing context. b. Causes of Errors According to Norrish 1983: 21 there are three popular causes of errors such as carelessness, first language interference, and translation. 1 Carelessness Carelessness is closely related to lack of motivation. Many teachers will admit that it is not always students‟ fault; perhaps the material or the styles of presentation do not suit the students. One way to reduce the number of „careless‟ errors in written work is to get students to check each other‟s work. This activity will involve students in an active search for errors and English can be used for a genuine communication while discussing the errors in the class. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 2 First Language Interference Skinner 1957 states, as cited in Norrish 1983: 22, that if language is essentially a set of habits, then when a learner learn new habits, the old ones will interfere with the new ones which is called „mother tongue interference‟. The implication of term „interference‟ is that what takes place is largely unconscious in the mind of the learner Norrish, 1983: 26. The learner‟s utterances are a thought to be gradually shaped towards those of the language he or she is learning. With the mother tongue, for example, sounds utters by young children which resemble those in the mother tongue are „reinforced‟ or rewarded by approval of the parents. The rewarding leads in turn to repetition of the utterance and the subsequent formation of linguistic habits Norrish, 1983: 22. The following is the example of first language interference, where a parent ha s been heard to „correct‟ a child‟s grammar McNeill 1966: 69 as cited from Norrish 1983: 23. Child: Nobody don‟t like me. Parent: No, say „nobody likes me‟. Child: Nobody don‟t like me. Parent: No, now listen carefully; say „nobody likes me‟. Child: Oh Nobody don‟t likes me. 3 Translation Norrish 1983: 25 states that translation word by word of idiomatic expressions in the learner‟s first language can produce classic howlers. Translation from the first language can lead to difficulty where there are not exact parallels between the two languages. One of the most typical situations is when a PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI learner has been asked to communicate something, but he or she does not know the appropriate expression or structure. He or she may even be unaware that an appropriate expression exists. Naturally, he or she will fall back on the familiar language, his or her mother tongue. Norrish 1983 also proposed other current theories of the causes of error. There are six causes of errors: contrastive analysis, general order of difficulty, overgeneralization, incomplete application of rules, material-induced errors, and error as a part of language creativity. 1 Contrastive Analysis The contrastive analysis rested on comparison mother tongue and target language Norrish, 1983: 280. Contrastive analysis is used to predict the areas of difficulty in the target language. This theory is related to the interference of first language. It was found that learning was basically a process of forming automatic habits and that error should therefore result form first language habits interfering with the learner‟s attempts to learn new linguistics behaviors. 2 General Order Difficulty Different languages show different characteristics order. As the consequences, learners of English as a foreign language have difficulty to understand the simple structure in English. Recent work on learners of English as a foreign language has indicated that this apparent hierarchy of difficulty may explain some of the learners‟ errors in English. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 3 Overgeneralization Richard as cited in Norrish 1983: 31 stated that error might be made as a result of blending structures learnt early in the learning sequences. The example of overgeneralization such as blending of the continuous and the simple present tense in a sentence; both the modal and the standard third person singular –s suffix are used. 4 Incomplete Application of Rules Richard as cited in Norrish 1983: 32 proposed two possible causes of incomplete application of rules. One is the use of questions in the classroom, where the learner is encouraged to repeat the question or part of it in the answer, for example: Teacher : Do you read much? Student : Yes, I read much. or Teacher : Ask her where she lives? Student : Where you live? The other possible cause is the fact that the learner may discover that he can communicate perfectly adequately using deviant form. 5 Material-Induced Errors Two further types of errors which may be induced by teaching materials are false concept and ignorance of rule restriction. The example of false concept such as, the use of present continuous tense in a series of pictures, a radio commentary of a football match, or a detective reporting over the phone the PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI actions of a suspect. Those are unnatural and will mislead the learners. Motivation, naturalness and a sensible context to for the language are clearly vital, if we accept the view that the learners will use the data presented to them actively, in order to test the use of the language items and form assumptions as to the kind of language they are learning. Errors arising from ignorance of rule restriction are more difficult to avoid because it often involves the construction of false analogies, a very similar activity to what the learners do when experimenting with their own language. The example of this theory such as when a student use the noun „discussion‟, and recalls that it is linked to another noun or noun phrase with the preposition „about‟ e.g “A discussion about abortion”, then compare it to “We discussed about the nuclear energy”. In this case, when the verb „discuss‟ occurs, the student should use his sense of naturalness in using preposition. 6 Errors as A Part of Language Creativity Learners need to create new utterances, but with limited experience of the target language, they may make errors Norrish, 1983: 34. Selinker 1972 as cited in Norrish stated that the process of learning target language leading to the errors is clearly a creative one. It is a natural activity of human who interact with his environment to make sense of it and to form it to his own ends. There are two types of creativity in language use Norrish, 1983: 35. The first type is the ability in the learner to use the parts of the language that he has learnt in order to say something that he may not heard before. The learner is drawing certain conclusions about how the language behaves, using as evidence PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI what he has seen of the target language. The second type of creativity is „creative arts‟. In this type, the learners are able to create works of literature in a language other than their own, even if it has been as thoroughly learnt as their mother tongue. c. Types of Errors Dulay 1982: 146 - 1920 proposes four major types of errors. Those are types of errors based on linguistic category, surface strategy taxonomy, comparative taxonomy, and communicative effect taxonomy. 1 Error Types Based on Linguistic Category Linguistic category classifies errors based on either or both of the language component or the particular linguistic constituent the error affects Dulay, 1982: 146. According to Dulay 1982: 146, language components include phonology pronunciation, syntax and morphology grammar, semantic and lexicon meaning and vocabulary, and discourse style. Whereas, constituents include the elements that comprise each language component. For instance, within syntax the error may be in the main clause or subordinate clause, and within a clause the error may be in the noun phrase, the verb phrase, the auxiliary, the preposition, and so forth. The types of linguistic category taxonomy based on Politzer and Ramirez 1973 as cited in Dulay 1982: 148-150 can be stated as follows. a Morphological Errors Morphological errors related to misuse of grammatical structure of words. The writer use the incorrect form of writing a word based on the rule of grammar. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 1 Errors in definite article Examples: a ox - an ox The correct phrase an big ox - a big ox The correct phrase 2 Errors in possessive case Examples: women secret - women‟s secret The correct phrase Agnes‟s father - Agnes‟ father The correct phrase 3 Errors in third person singular verb Example: He play football with his friend. He plays football with his friend. The correct sentence 4 Errors in simple past tense There are two types of past tense, regular and irregular past tense. Regular past tense: Example: She tryed to cook a new menu for dinner. She tried to cook a new menu for dinner. The correct sentence Irregular past tense: Example: I buyed a new skirt last week. I bought a new skirt last week. The correct sentence 5 Errors in past participle Example: The thieves were arrest by the police last month. The thieves were arrested by the police last month. The correct sentence 6 Errors in comparative adjective or adverb Examples: My shoes is more cheaper than yours. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI My shoes are cheaper than yours. The correct sentence b Syntactical Errors Syntactical errors deal with the disorder of words to form of phrases or sentences. 1 Errors in noun phrase There two syntactical errors in noun phrase verb which are related to the preposition errors. i. Nominalization Example: The book was written Sir Arthur. Omission preposition by The book was written by Sir Arthur The correct sentence ii. Use of prepositions Examples: He went the house. Omission of preposition He went into the house. The correct sentence He fell down from the water. Misuse of prepositions He fell down into the water. The correct sentence 2 Errors in verb phrase Examples: My classmates is very funny. Disagreement of subject and number My classmates are very funny. The correct sentence 3 Errors in verb-and-verb construction Example: I try make her smile. Omission of to in identical subject construction I try to make her smile. The correct sentence PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 4 Errors in word order Example: The bicycle repairs Tedy. Subject and object permuted Tedy repairs the bicycle. The correct sentence 5 Errors in some transformations Examples: I don‟t know nothing. Multiple negation I know nothing. The correct sentence c Lexical Errors Lexical errors are related to lack of vocabularies. Example: I use a pink t-shirt. I wear a pink t-shirt. The correct sentence 2 Error Types Based on Surface Strategy Taxonomy Surface strategy taxonomy classifies four types of errors. They are omission, addition, misinformation, and misordering. a Omission Omission errors are characterized by the omission of an item that must appear in well-formed utterance Dulay, 1982:154 Example: She is not allowed to her parents to go. Omission or wrong preposition before agent She is not allowed by her parents to go. The correct sentence b Addition Addition errors are characterized by the presence of an item which must not appear in a well-formed utterance Dulay, 1982:156 Example: I wait for you in here. Simple addition PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI I wait for you here. The correct sentence c Misinformation According to Dulay 1982:158, misinformation errors are characterized by the use of the wrong form of the morpheme or structure. It is different from omission errors. In omission errors, the item is not supplied at all. While in misinformation errors, the item is supplied. Misinformation errors consist of five types of errors, such as regularization, archi-forms, alternating forms, misinformation of gerunds after preposition, and wrong use of preposition with – ed forms. Examples: i. She taked a beautiful ring from the ditch yesterday. Regularization She took a beautiful ring from the ditch yesterday. The correct sentence ii. He wants to buy these cloth. Archi-form He wants to buy these clothes. The correct sentence iii. I seen you two days ago in my friend‟s party. Alternating form I saw you two days ago in my friend‟s party. The correct sentence iv. You must not discourage him from write what he must. Misinformation of gerunds after preposition You must not discourage him from writing what he must. The correct sentence v. I am bored about his teaching. Wrong use of preposition with –ed forms I am bored with his teaching. The correct sentence PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI d Misordering Dulay 1982:162 stated that misordering errors are characterized by the incorrect placement of a morpheme or group of morpheme in an utterance. There are two kinds of misordering, misplacement of after and the failure in applying before, after, since and until. i. Misplacement of after Example: I got up after I brushed my teeth. I brushed my teeth after I got up. The correct sentence ii. Failure in applying before, after, since and until Examples: He is studying here since 9 o‟clock. He had been studying here since 9 o‟clock. The correct sentence I will come to your house before you will go. I will come to your house before you go. The correct sentence 3 Error Types Based on Comparative Taxonomy The classification of errors in comparative taxonomy is based on comparison between the structure of second language errors and certain other types of constructions. There are two major errors in comparative taxonomy, developmental errors and interlingual errors Dulay, 1982:163. Dulay 1982:165 stated that developmental errors are errors which are similar to the errors made by children who learn the target language as their first PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI language. These errors include the omission of the article and the past tense marker. Example: I go to the beach last Sunday. I went to the beach last Sunday. The correct sentence Interlingual errors are errors which are similar in pattern to a semantically equivalent phrase or sentence in the learner‟s native language Dulay, 1982:171. Interlingual errors refer to second language errors that reflect the native language structure. Example: My brother tall. Equivalent to Kakak ku tinggi 4 Error Types Based on Communicative Effect Taxonomy These types of errors are classified by the perspective of their effect on the listener or reader Dulay, 1982: 189. This type focus on differentiation between errors that seem to cause miscommunication and those that do not. Errors in communicative effect taxonomy are divided into two types, which are global errors and local errors Dulay, 1982: 191 a Global Errors Global errors are errors that affect overall sentence organization significantly hinder communication Dulay, 1982: 191. Global errors consist of four types. 1 Wrong order of major constituent Example: The book read Mary. Mary reads the book. The correct sentence PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 2 Missing, wrong, or misplaced sentence connectors Example: Not take this bus, we late for school. If we don‟t take this bus, we will late for school. The correct sentence 3 Missing cues to signal obligatory exceptions to pervasive syntactic rules Example: My message replied by my mother. My message is replied by my mother. The correct sentence 4 Regularization of pervasive syntactic rules to exceptions Example: They amused that dance very much. That dance amused them very much. The correct sentence b Local Errors Dulay 1982: 191 define local errors as errors that affect single elements constituents in a sentence do not usually hinder communication significantly. These errors include errors in noun and verb inflections, articles, auxiliaries and the formation of quantifiers. Example: When you meet Amy? When did you meet Amy? The correct sentence A learner can understand the first sentence since the errors does not affect the meaning of the sentence. d. Mistakes Mistakes and errors can be assumed as a violation from the rules of the target language grammar. However, it is important to differentiate both of mistakes and errors. Mistakes happen when a learner make inconsistent deviation, PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI sometimes the learner gets it right but sometimes he or she use the wrong form, in fact the learner has known the right form Norrish, 1983: 8. Mistakes can be caused by inattentiveness in class, for instance, in the first paragraph the learner writes “He must go to the market”, but in the second paragraph the learner writes “He must to go to the market”. Another linguist explains, the same as Norrish, that mistakes are performance errors caused by factors such as fatigue and inattention, while errors are competence errors resulting from lack of knowledge Dulay, 1982: 139. Brown 1991: 110 states mistakes are invisible and uncorrectable because mistakes occur even when a student is making hisher best conscious attempt to speak the language correctly. On the other hand, errors are visible and correctable. A student is able to backtrack on previous statement and try to revise the statement when heshe hear incorrect utterance. In conclusion, errors indicate students‟ imperfect competence, while mistakes indicate students‟ imperfect performance. Since in this research, the writer discussed the competence of senior high school students in using preposition, the writer would like to discuss errors. 2. Preposition According to Curme 1947: 65, preposition is a word that functions to relate a noun phrase to another unit. Another definition of preposition is stated by Lester 1990: 16, preposition is a word that shows the relation of a noun or a pronoun to some other word in the sentences. Related to the definitions of PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI preposition, in this chapter, the writer will discuss the form of preposition and the use of preposition. a. The Forms of Prepositions According to Greenbaum and Quirk 1990:192-202 there are four forms of prepositions to express the exact meaning when the prepositions are attached in a sentence. Greenbaum and Quirk divided the usage of prepositions in four clusters. The following are the four clusters of the usage of prepositions. 1 Place and Position In this part, prepositions describe the static location of a thing. There is an exact location to describe where the thing is. The common preposition for this usage are on, in, at, below, above, between, in front of, behind, beside, etc. Examples: The book is on the table. Mary puts her wallet in her bag. She hides behind the door. 2 Direction and Motion Prepositions are also used to express the movement object, where the object has a distance to another thing. There are a lot of prepositions that express direction and motion, such as to, from, into, across, towards, onto, over, through, etc. These examples will explain the usage of prepositions. Examples: He walked to the lamp-post. My mother pours the water into the cup. The kid jumped over the wall. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 3 Time Prepositions in this part express points of time, period of time and time duration. Three prepositions, at, on, and in are used in expression answering the quest ion “When?” and they reflect a concept of time as analogous to space Greenbaun and Quirk, 1990:196. Examples: The show will begin at 07.00 p.m. My grandfather died in 2002. We will go to New York on Saturday. Where the time is regarded as duration, the usual prepositions are during, for, throughout, and all through Greenbaum and Quirk, 1990:197. Examples: During the summer, Mr. Smith‟s family stayed in a village. They will close the shop for three weeks. We try to stay alert throughout the entire ceremony. Other prepositions to express time such as until, since, from, up to, often, usually, after, before, till, by, etc. 4 Manner, Agent, and Instrument Another function of prepositions is to express manner, agency, and instrument. This preposition is used to answer “How” question with by used for agent and with for manner and instrument. In manner expression, with is followed by adjective. On the other hand, with for instrument is followed by noun. Examples: I go to work by a car. She won the match with her fast service. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Captain Jack made a little clicking sound with his teeth. b. The Use of Prepositions There are a lot of variations in using prepositions. One preposition might be has different meaning if it is attached in different word or more than one preposition have the same meaning in a given context Murcia and Freeman, 1999: 414. 1 Spatial proximity e.g. a hut nearby the lake 2 Timedegree approximation e.g. cost aroundabout Rp 10.000,00 3 Telling time e.g. a half afterpast nine a quarter ofto five 4 Location along something linear e.g. the shops alongon the street 5 In a time period e.g. It happened induring 2007. 6 Temporal termination e.g. She works from 8 untiltillto 4 7 Location lower than something e.g. The box is belowbeneathunderunderneath the stairs. 8 Location higher than something e.g. The plane fly over the building. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI Father hangs the picture above the mirror. 9 Location inat the rear of something e.g. They hide behindin back of the door. 10 Location adjacent e.g. I sit next tobeside him.

B. Theoretical Framework