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bilingualism. In contrast with compound bilingualism, in coordinate bilingualism, the person learns the languages in separate environment, and the words of the two
languages are kept separate with each word having its own specific meaning Romaine, 1995. The third is sub-coordinate bilingualism. In sub-coordinate
bilingualism bilinguals interpret words of the weaker language through the words of the stronger language Romaine, 1995. Thus, the dominant language acts as a
filter for the other.
2. Code Switching
According to Spolsky 1998, bilinguals often switch between their two languages in the middle of a conversation. These code switches can take place
between or even within sentences, involving phrases or words or even parts of words. In this section, the researcher will discuss the definitions of code
switching, the types of code switching, and functions of code switching.
a. Definitions of Code Switching
Hoffmann 1991 states that the most general description of code- switching is that, it involves the alternate use of two languages or linguistic
varieties within the same utterance or during the same conversation. According to Wardaugh 2010, code switching is a process when a speaker decides to switch
from one code to another or to mix codes even within sometimes very short utterances and thereby create a new code. Gal 1998, p.247 says, ‘code switching
is a conversational strategy used to establish, cross or destroy group boundaries;
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to create, evoke, or change interpersonal relations with their rights and obligations’.
b. Types of Code Switching
In this research, the researcher provides the types of code switching from three different experts. The experts are Wardaugh 2010, Poplack 1980, and
Hoffmann 1991. The explanations of the types of code switching from those three experts are presented below.
Wardaugh 2010 classifies code switching into two types: situational and metaphorical. Situational code switching occurs when the languages used change
according to the situations in which the conversant find them. It means they speak one language in one situation and another in a different one. No topic change is
involved. While metaphorical code switching occurs when a change of topic requires a change in the language used.
1 Types of Code Switching According to Poplack
According to Poplack 1980 there are three types of code switching: tag- switching, inter-sentential and intra-sentential.
a Tag-switching
It involves the insertion of a tag in one language into an utterance which is otherwise entirely in other language, e.g. you know, I mean, etc. Here is the
example of tag-switching from a Finnish-English bilingual.
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[1] Mutta en ma viittinyt, no way But I’m not bothered, no way
From the example [1], we can see that the speaker inserts the tag no way in her utterance. If we observe the utterance, we can see that the first language he or she
uses is Finnish. However, the speaker does tag switching by inserting the English tag.
b Inter-sentential Switching
It involves a switch at a clause or sentence boundary, where each clause or sentence is in one language or another. Here is the example of inter-sentential
switching from an Indonesian-English bilingual. [2] Did you hear something? Kalian dengar sesuatu gak? Did you hear
something? Having observed the example [2], it is obvious that the Indonesian-English
bilingual speaker uses English in her first sentence. It can be seen from his or her sentence which is
“Did you hear something?” However, the speaker does code switching to Indonesian by saying: “Kalian dengar sesuatu gak?” From the
example [2], we can see that the switch occurs at the sentence boundary.
c Intra-sentential Switching
It involves, arguably, the greatest syntactic risk, and may be avoided by the most fluent bilinguals. Here, the code switching occurs within the clause or
sentence boundary. Here is the example from a Tok Pisin-English bilingual who said.
12 [3] What’s so funny? Come, be good. Otherwise yu bai go long kot. –
What’s so funny? Come, be good. Otherwise, you’ll go to court. The example [3] shows that the switch occurs within the clause boundary. It can
be seen from the speaker’s utterance: “Otherwise yu bai go long kot”. From the
speaker’s utterance, it is obvious that the speaker switches his or her code from English to Tok Pisin. Thus, it can be concluded that the speaker does intra-
sentential switching since the code switching occurs within the clause or sentence
boundary. 2 Types of Code Switching According to Hoffmann
Hoffmann 1991 classifies code switching into four types:
a Intra-sentential Switches switches within a sentence
Intra-sentential switching occurs within a sentence or a clause. These following examples are the examples of intra-sentential switches taken from a
Spanish-English bilingual and a French-English bilingual: [4] ‘I started going like this. Y luego decia and then he said, look at the
smoke coming out of my fingers’ Valdes Fallis in Hoffmann, 1991, p. 111
[5] ‘Va chercher Marc go and fetch Marc and bribe him avec un chocolat
chaud with a hot chocolate with cream on top’.
Grosjean in Hoffmann, 1991, p. 111
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Having analyzed those two examples, we can conclude that those two bilinguals do intra-sentential switching since the switches occur within a sentence or a
clause.
b Inter-sentential Switches switches occurs between sentences
Inter-sentential switching occurs between a clause or sentence boundary. Here are the examples of inter- sentential switches taken from a Spanish-Catalan
bilingual and a Spanish-English bilingual. Observe these examples below. [6] ‘... y si dices “perdon” en castellano, se te vuelve la mujer y te dice:’
‘... and if you say “sorry” in Castilian Spanish, the lady turns to you and says:’
‘En catala’ ‘In Catalan’ Calsamiglia and Tuson in Hoffmann, 1991, p. 112
[7] ‘Tenia zapatos blancos, un poco. They were off-white, you know.’
Silva-Corvalan in Hoffmann, 1991, p. 112
c Establishing Continuity with the Previous Speaker
This type of code switching is used to maintain a conversation with someone whom hisher mother tongue is different from the speaker, as when a
Catalan-Spanish bilingual responds to a Spanish speaker who has said: [8]
S: ‘Y se van a molestar, no? No tienen por que’ They are going to be annoyed, aren’t they? [But] there is no reason
why they should’: C: ‘Bueno Si que tienen por que. ‘Well They do have a reason’
‘O sigui, o l’encenen amb nosaltres o...’ ‘I mean, either they have the bonfire with us or...’
Calsamiglia and Tuson in Hoffmann, 1991, p. 111
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The example above shows that the Catalan speaker switches code to the Spanish language when he speaks with the Spanish speaker. In this case, the Catalan
speaker does code switching in order to maintain the conversation with the Spanish speaker who shares the different mother tongue.
d Emblematic Switching
Emblematic switching, which is also called t ag switching, “involves the
insertion of a tag in one language into an utterance which is otherwise entirely in the other language
” Romaine, 1995, p. 122. In this case, an emblem or a tag is used to show certain feelings or emotions and to get an agreement. Here is the
example from a Spanish-American English speaker who said: [9]‘..Oh Ay It was embarrassing It was very nice, though, but I was
embarrassed’
Silva-Corvalan in Hoffmann, 1991, p. 112
c. Functions of Code Switching
