Children experiencing multiple deprivations

54 Table 2.3: Selected indicators for each dimension of child deprivation, 2009 Dimension of child poverty Education Working children Health Shelter Sanitation Water of children deprived per indicator 68.98 11.31 4.71 1.62 16.59 1.66 0.81 27.86 10.43 7.85 51.64 37.38 of children deprived per dimension 25.9 6.3 17.2 37.0 51.6 37.38 Selected indicators Children 3–6 years old not enrolled in ECE institutions Children 7–17 years old not enrolled in primary or secondary school Children perform economic labour without going to school Children perform economic labour and also go to school Self-reported workschool disrupted by ill health Self-reported diarrhea Self-reported asthma Children living in house with a floor area of less than 8m2 per person Children living in house with an earth floor Children living in house without electric lighting Children living in house without a proper toilet Children living in house without access to clean water Note:฀฀฀live฀in฀house฀with฀toilet฀or฀have฀access฀to฀communal฀toilet,฀which฀is฀at฀least฀a฀squat-type฀facility,฀and฀the฀roof฀is฀made฀฀฀ ฀฀฀฀฀฀ of฀iron฀sheeting;฀฀includes฀piped฀water,฀rain฀water,฀artesian฀and฀dug฀wells,฀and฀protected฀wells฀and฀springs฀see฀also฀the฀฀฀฀฀฀ definitions in Appendix I. Source:฀Estimated฀using฀data฀from฀the฀2009฀SUSENAS฀Panel Table 2.4: Children suffering multiple deprivations, 2009 No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Number of dimensions of deprivation No deprivation Only one deprivation Two deprivations Three deprivations Four deprivations Five deprivations All of any deprivations 18.28 30.65 29.12 18.49 6.56 1.28 0.07 Source:฀Estimated฀using฀data฀from฀the฀2009฀SUSENAS฀Panel various dimensions Table 2.6. For children under three years old, deprivation in health was positively and significantly correlated with deprivation of shelter and sanitation but not with deprivation of access to clean water. Deprivation of shelter is shown to be the indirect factor with the strongest association with the health of children under three years of age. In addition, enrolment in formal education prohibited children from performing working children’s activities working was strongly correlated with education deprivation. The analysis also shows that children’s participation in the workforce had a small but non-significant negative correlation with health deprivation, potentially indicating no correlation between children’s participation in the workforce with their health condition. In contrast, a study using a longitudinal dataset on Indonesia the Indonesia Family Life Survey, IFLS found strong negative effects for working children on the growth of both their numeracy and cognitive skills over the a period of seven years, as well as strong negative effects on their pulmonary function as measured by lung capacity Sim, Suryadarma and Suryahadi, 2011. 55 Table 2.5: Correlations across dimensions of child poverty deprivation Age group Under 3 years Education Working children Health Shelter Sanitation Water 3–9 years Education Working children Health Shelter Sanitation Water 10–17 years Education Working children Health Shelter Sanitation Water All children Education Working children Health Shelter Sanitation Water Education na na na na na na 1 na 0.0531 0.0453 0.0405 -0.0126 1 0.5950 -0.0207 0.1362 0.1738 -0.0074 1 0.5950 0.1164 0.0798 0.0684 -0.0123 Working children na na na na na na na na na na 1 -0.0096 0.1087 0.1430 0.0063 1 -0.0096 0.1087 0.1430 0.0063 Health 1 0.0463 0.0423 0.0099 1 0.0217 0.0155 0.009 1 0.0254 0.0197 0.0102 1 0.0324 0.0221 0.0068 Shelter 1 0.3302 -0.0155 1 0.3384 -0.0151 1 0.3399 -0.0196 1 0.3379 -0.0187 Sanitation 1 0.0628 1 0.0440 1 0.0323 1 0.0409 Water 1 1 1 1 Source:฀Estimated฀using฀data฀from฀the฀2009฀SUSENAS฀Panel Note:฀signiicant฀at฀p0.01฀level Figure 2.5: Pattern of relationships among the six dimensions of child poverty, 2009 School enrolment Water Shelter Sanitation Working children Health + + + + + + + - - Legend: Significant correlation Non-significant correlation + Positive correlation - Negative correlation Source:฀Analyzed฀from฀Table฀2.6 56 The analysis on the proportion of children deprived in each dimension by household income quintiles confirms the link between monetary and non monetary poverty. Table 2.6 shows that the proportion of children deprived in any dimension decreases as the household income level increases from children in the poorest quintiles Q1 to children in the richest quintiles Q5. Furthermore, the proportion of children who were free from any deprivation increased along the quintiles of households’ income. There were only 4.95 per cent of children in quintile 1 who were free from any deprivation, while in contrast there were 39.76 per cent of children in quintile five who were free from any of deprivation.

2.3 Child deprivation in shelter, water and sanitation dimensions

This section will specifically discuss the shelter, sanitation and water dimensions, to provide a deeper understanding of the related issues and situation. The income dimension of child poverty has been discussed at length in the previous section; while the health, education and working children dimensions will be further discussed in chapters 3, 4 and 5, respectively. Source:฀Estimated฀from฀Susenas฀Panel,฀2009 Table 2.6: Children deprived in each dimension by household income quintiles, 2009 Dimension of Child Poverty Education Working children Health Shelter Sanitation Water Q1 35.2 8.0 17.2 60.8 78.0 41.37 Q2 28.6 6.5 17.3 43.2 62.8 40.34 Q3 24.2 6.1 17.3 32.6 49.4 36.14 Q4 20.3 5.0 17.6 23.6 33.9 32.98 Q5 16.6 5.3 16.4 11.4 17.9 33.63 Total 25.9 6.3 17.2 37.0 51.6 37.38 Table 2.7: Children suffering multiple deprivations by household income quintiles, 2009 No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Variable No deprivation at all Only one any deprivation Two of any deprivations Three of any deprivations Four of any deprivations Five of any deprivations All of any deprivations Q1 4.95 17.78 32.37 29.01 11.82 2.47 0.10 Q2 11.28 27.52 32.77 22.03 7.80 1.47 0.13 Q3 18.53 33.47 29.86 15.74 5.27 0.97 0.02 Q4 28.97 39.05 26.79 11.31 3.00 0.46 0.05 Q5 39.76 44.98 19.74 6.32 1.11 0.22 0.05 Total 18.28 30.65 29.12 18.49 6.56 1.28 0.07 Source:฀Estimated฀from฀Susenas฀Panel,฀2009 Table 2.7 shows the change between 2003 and 2009 in the deprivation measures for children that relate to household-level standards and amenities: shelter, sanitation and access to clean water. In general, deprivation, in terms of shelter and sanitation, has declined mirroring the declines in monetary child poverty over the same period. However, access to clean water has worsened. Table 2.7 also shows both the percentage point change in these indicators and the underlying growth and decline rates. Given the different units of measurement and the different levels of deprivation at the starting point in 2003, it is most useful to think of changing deprivation levels in terms of the decline and growth rates rather than absolute change. ‘Overcrowding’, using a measure of 8 square metres per person per household, was the most common deprivation; 26 per cent of children were deprived of adequate space in 2003, reducing 8.6 per cent by 2009. Deprivation of electricity for household lighting fell much more quickly in the same period, by almost 52 per cent, from 15.5 per cent of children deprived to just 7.5 per cent in 2009. Having an earth floor in the house also fell from 15.1 per cent of children in 2003 to 10.1 per cent in 2009, a decline of almost 29 per cent. Turning to sanitation, the proportion of children without 57 access to a proper toilet is a very common deprivation, which affected a majority of children in 2003 53.7 per cent but improved rapidly to 36 per cent in 2009 – a decline of 33.7 per cent in six years for this deprivation. On the other hand, water deprivations for children have risen during the same period, with the proportion of children having no access to clean water rising from 29.3 to 35.1 per cent – a 20 per cent growth in this deprivation. The definition of ‘safe and improved water sources’ in this analysis includes piped water, rain water, artesian and dug wells, and protected wells and springs; and the water sources must be located further than 10 metres from any septic tank. 11 Data are derived from items in the SUSENAS regarding the main source of drinking water, which is affected not only by the availability of water sources but also the preference of household members. An analysis using a different approach that defines ‘access to safe and clean water’ as consuming mineral water, tap water, or water from water pumps, protected wells or protected springs 12 has resulted in the opposite trend, with the percentage of children deprived of access to safe water declining from 30.6 per cent in 2003 to 26.2 per cent in 2009, a decline of approximately 14 per cent. These differences indicate that more households may have shifted to the use of mineral and tap water, but no data are available that might explain the reason behind this shift. Table 2.8: Children suffering shelter, sanitation and water deprivations, 2003–2009 Dimension of poverty Shelter Sanitation Water Indicators Area 8m2person Earth floor No electricity for lighting No proper toilet No access to protected and clean water sources Percentage point change -2.3 -4.3 -8.0 -18.1 5.8 DeclineGrowth -8.6 -28.7 -51.7 -33.7 19.9 2003 26.2 15.1 15.5 53.7 29.3 2009 23.9 10.8 7.5 35.6 35.1 Children deprived Source:฀Estimated฀using฀data฀from฀the฀2009฀SUSENAS฀Panel Provincial disparities in terms of shelter, water and sanitation deprivations are shown in Figure 2.6 and Figure 2.7. The shelter deprivations shown in Figure 2.6 show that very high proportions of children in Papua and other eastern provinces live in households with earth floors, lack of electricity and overcrowding. In general, urban and population- dense provinces seem to have lower levels of electricity deprivation, but have higher levels of overcrowding. Children in Jakarta, in particular, suffer more from overcrowding, but are unlikely to have an earth floor or to lack electricity. Housing structure – reflected in space per household member and type of floor – is somehow also associated with local or traditional housing designs. Most traditional houses in East Nusa Tenggara and in Papua, for example, have earth floors. Water and sanitation deprivations are shown in Figure 2.7. There is less correspondence at the provincial level across these two dimensions, with West Sulawesi and Papua having the highest rates of children living in households without a proper toilet 63.5 and 62.8 per cent, respectively, but children in West Kalimantan having the highest rates of lack of access to clean water 85.8 per cent, followed by Papua 78 per cent. 11 This definition is the formal definition used by the Government of Indonesia’s National Development Planning Agency BAPPENAS, BPS – Statistics Indonesia, and Ministry of Public Works Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum for development programmes. 12 This definition is commonly used by the United Nations Development Programme UNDP in Human Development Reports. 58 Figure 2.6: Children deprived of shelter by province, 2009 Papua West Papua NTT Jakarta Gorontalo North Sulawesi Maluku NTB West Kalimantan South Sumatra Aceh West Sulawesi North Sumatra North Maluku Central Sulawesi West Sumatra Southeast Sulawesi Central Kalimantan Bengkulu Riau East Kalimantan West Java Riau Islands Bali South Kalimantan Banten Bangka Belitung South Sulawesi Jambi Lampung East Java Yogyakarta Central Java 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 of children deprived in shelter dimension Live in house 8m2 per person Without electricity connection Live in house with earth floor Source:฀Estimated฀using฀data฀from฀2009฀SUSENAS฀Panel Source:฀Estimated฀using฀data฀from฀2009฀SUSENAS฀Panel Figure 2.7: Children deprived of sanitation and water by province, 2009 West Sulawesi Papua Gorontalo West Papua Maluku North Maluku Central Kalimantan NTT Southeast Sulawesi Aceh West Sumatra Central Sulawesi NTB South Sumatra West Kalimantan South Kalimantan Lampung Jambi Riau Islands North Sumatra East Java Central Java South Sulawesi Bengkulu Banten Bangka Belitung North Sulawesi Riau West Java East Kalimantan Yogyakarta Bali Jakarta 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 of children deprived in sanitation or water Live in house without proper toilet Without the access to safe water