Benefits of social protection programmes for households and

190 rights, it is not sufficient on its own, and other deprivations must be addressed. Also, increasing children’s welfare at an aggregate level will not be sufficient without ensuring equal access and opportunity for all children regardless of their location, gender and socio-economic background. It has been widely acknowledged that a country’s capability to develop and reach its full potential cannot be judged only by the quantity of growth but also by the quality of growth. All parts of the community, including all groups of children, should have equal access to participate in and to enjoy the benefits of growth. Consequently, the GoI should ensure that development processes and outcomes will increase the well-being of all children equally. Indeed realizing children’s rights and increasing their welfare without discrimination in a large and diverse country like Indonesia entails many challenges. Essentially, the well-being of children is determined by the collective efforts of parents and extended families, the community, the local, provincial, and national government, as well as the global community. Therefore, household poverty and differences in economic development across communities and regions potentially influence the variation in children’s well-being. In addition to the regional disparity in economic and physical infrastructure developments, the progress in realizing children’s rights is also affected by the Table 7.1: Indicators of economic strength and children’s well-being in Indonesia compared with selected developing countries Country Indonesia Malaysia Vietnam Philippines Thailand China India Brazil Gross national income GNI 3,956.8 1,326.9 2,994.8 4,992.1 8,000.6 7,258.5 3,337.4 10,607.0 Combined gross enrolment rates in school 68.2 71.5 62.3 79.6 78.0 68.7 61.0 87.2 Expected years of schooling of children under 7 12.7 12.5 10.4 11.5 13.5 11.4 10.3 13.8 Under-5 mortality rate 41 6 14 32 14 21 69 22 Under-5 suffering moderate high malnutrition 18 na na 22 7 6 43 2 Child labour 5–14 years 7 na 16 12 8 na 12 4 Source:฀UNDP,฀International฀Human฀Development฀Indicators,฀available฀at:฀http:hdrstats.undp.orgenindicators;฀UNICEF,฀Childinfo,฀ available฀at:฀http:www.childinfo.orgundernutrition_nutritional_status.php new decentralized decision-making process. This involves not only the central and regional government executive institutions but also the political parties sitting in the legislative, as well as the media, various non-government organizations NGOs, and the communities themselves to provide the necessary checks and balances. The volatility of the global economy also affects the domestic economy and indirectly impacts on child well-being. In addition to this, the government’s capacity to fund programmes related to the improvement of child well-being is limited by the fact that a large proportion of the central and local government budgets are allocated to the maintenance of the government administrative apparatus and fuel subsidies. With poverty and children’s welfare at the top of the GoI’s agenda, this analysis of child poverty and disparity seeks to increase awareness about neglected and deprived children and to support strengthened policies and interventions to benefit these children. The intention is to specifically explore the multiple dimensions of poverty and deprivation facing children in Indonesia. The following passages draw major conclusions from the gathered quantitative and qualitative data presented in the preceding chapters and link these conclusions with relevant policies in order to develop practical and effective recommendations for the reduction of child poverty and disparities in Indonesia. 191

7.2 The extent and state of child poverty in Indonesia

This study has assessed the situation of multidimensional deprivation facing children in Indonesia and the country’s progress towards reducing both the deprivations and the disparities. The findings have revealed the considerable progresses in many dimensions of children’s well-being. At the national level, over the past few years leading up to 2009, the proportion of children in income poverty declined significantly, enrolment rates at all levels of education increased, child mortality rates declined, children’s nutritional status improved, and the proportion of children living in unhealthy settlements and without proper sanitation declined. Despite these successes, unfortunately the level of achievement in several other dimensions is still very low and will require major efforts. As presented in Table 7.2, a high proportion of children still live below the decent living standard 2 PPP per capita per day, there is a low level of enrolment in ECE, a low level of access to various sources of information except television, a low proportion of babies exclusively breast fed, and a low level of possessing birth certificates. These are important issues that need special attention as more than half of Indonesian children are deprived. Meanwhile, more than a quarter of children still suffer from deprivation in regard to other dimensions such as income poverty, secondary school enrolment rates, healthy settlements and sanitation and under-five mortality. These issues also need to be addressed. More importantly, special attention should be devoted to some indicators that have experienced setbacks, including access to safe water, 1 exclusive breastfeeding, measles immunization, cases of diarrhea and asthma, access to story books, magazines and newspapers, access to artistic performance and practice, as well as child labour and children with multiple activities school, work and chores. Poverty is a dynamic phenomenon. Going forward, it is important that the dimensions where good progress has been achieved should not be taken for granted, but that progress must be maintained. Moreover, as will be discussed in the following passage, the national figures often hide the inequality of progress and achievements across groups of children from different backgrounds and locations. Thus, a deeper disaggregated analysis is always necessary to ensure that no particular group of children is being neglected and left behind the others. Table 7.2. Summary of progress in reducing various dimensions of child poverty in Indonesia, 2002–2010 Income poverty Shelter Sanitation Water Health condition Immunization and breastfeeding Live below 1 PPPcapitaday Live below national poverty line Live below 2 PPPcapitaday Area 8m2person Earth floor No electricity for lighting No proper toilet No access to clean water Self-reported asthma Self-reported diarrhoea Incomplete immunizations Not immunized: Hepatitis B1 Not immunized: Hepatitis B2 Not immunized: Hepatitis B3 Not exclusively breastfed 6 months Not immunized: measles 2003 12.8 23.4 63.5 26.2 15.1 15.5 53.7 29.3 0.4 1.1 20022003 48.5 29.1 41.9 54.7 60.5 2007 18.4 2009 10.6 17.4 55.8 23.9 10.8 7.5 35.6 35.1 0.8 1.7 2007 41.4 19.5 28.3 39.7 67.6 2010 25.5 Average annual change -2.9 -4.3 -2.0 -1.5 -4.7 -8.6 -5.6 3.3 16.7 9.1 -2.4 -5.5 -5.4 -4.6 2.0 6.4 Data sources SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS IDHS IDHS IDHS IDHS IDHS RISKESDAS 1 This definition does not include packagedbottled water see Chapter 2 192 Nutritional status Mortality rate Not enrolled in school Dropout and discontinued Schooling children without access to certain sources of information 5–17 years Working children 10–17 years Underweight Stunting Wasting Overweight Neonatal Post-neonatal Under 5 years old Age 3–6 years ECE Age 7–12 years primary Age 13–15 years junior Age 16–17 years senior Age 7–12 years Age 13–15 years Age 16–17 years School text books Science books Story books Newspapers Magazinestabloids Television Radio Art practice or display Total Economic work only Economic work and household chores Economic work and schooling Economic work, household chores and schooling 18.4 38.8 13.6 12.2 2003 23.0 20.0 54.0 2003 76.2 3.8 21.0 43.4 1.6 20.1 42.8 40.1 81.9 82.2 90.5 90.7 9.5 51.9 88.5 12.3 7.0 2.3 2.1 0.9 17.9 35.6 13.3 14.0 2009 19.0 15.0 44.0 2009 67.8 3.0 13.5 32.8 1.1 12.7 32.1 25.1 66.5 84.9 95.0 95.2 6.2 83.4 92.4 10.5 4.6 2.3 2.1 1.6 -0.5 -1.4 -0.4 2.5 -2.9 -4.2 -3.1 -1.8 -3.5 -6.0 -4.1 -5.2 -6.1 -4.2 -6.2 -3.1 0.5 0.8 0.8 -5.8 10.1 0.7 -2.4 -5.7 0.0 0.0 13.0 RISKESDAS RISKESDAS RISKESDAS RISKESDAS IDHS IDHS IDHS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS SUSENAS Working children 10–17 years Lack of birth certificate Total Economic work only Economic work and household chores Economic work and schooling Economic work, household chores and schooling Child Labour 5 years old 2004 8.7 4.4 2.0 1.8 0.5 4.2 2007 59.4 2009 10.4 2.2 3.4 3.5 1.3 4.7 2009 52.3 3.9 -10.0 14.0 18.9 32.0 2.4 -6.0 SAKERNAS SAKERNAS SAKERNAS SAKERNAS SAKERNAS SAKERNAS SUSENAS Source:฀National฀Socio-Economic฀Survey฀SUSENAS;฀Indonesia฀Demographic฀and฀Health฀Survey฀IDHS;฀Basic฀Health฀Research฀ RISKESDAS;฀National฀Labour฀Force฀Survey฀SAKERNAS Notes฀:฀PPP=Purchasing฀power฀parity;฀ECE=early฀childhood฀education฀ Average Annual change Data sources 193 In spite of the progress already made, a substantial number and proportion of children in Indonesia suffer from multiple deprivations. The estimates presented in Chapter 2 indicate that only around 15 per cent of children in Indonesia are completely free from all seven dimensions of deprivation – education, child labour, health, shelter, water, sanitation and income. Around a quarter of all children suffer from one dimension of deprivation, and another quarter suffers from two dimensions. In total, almost 70 per cent of all children in Indonesia suffer from one to three dimensions of deprivation. Since the proportion of children that live on less than 2 PPP per capita per day accounted for around 55 per cent in 2009, the multiple deprivation figure indicates that even children from non-poor households by income measures, suffer from other forms of deprivation non-income. Further analysis shows even among the top three income 2 quintiles i.e., the three wealthiest a significant proportion of children more than 30 per cent do not have access to safe water and are not enrolled in early childhood education ECE. Indeed, the correlation analysis indicates a strong correlation between the various deprivation dimensions, and that household income remains the most significant determining factor for other types of deprivation. Household attributes – such as female-headed household, large number of household members, and low educational background of the household head – were found to be strongly correlated with income poverty. Female-headed households, however, performed better than male-headed households in terms of nutrition and education-related dimensions. There was a higher prevalence of various types of deprivation among children from poorer households, with the exception of access to clean water, prevalence of overweight children, exclusive breastfeeding, and enrolment in early childhood education. It is important to note, however, that even in the dimensions that have been progressing well nationally, such as the U5MR, the ownership of birth certificates, and school enrolment rates among children aged 12–15 years, the gaps between children from the poorest and the richest quintiles are substantial Figure 7.1: Selected indicators of child deprivation showing disparities among households by wealth quintiles, 2009 Source:฀See฀Table฀7.2. 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 No proper toilet No proper shelter No access to protected clean water Early marriage before 18 years old Neonatal mortality rate Post-neonatal mortality rate U5 mortality rate Self-reported diarrhea Not having immunization: measles Not having complete immunization Underweight Stunting W asting Overweight Not receive exclusive breastfeeding Not enrolled in school: 3-6 years old Not enrolled in school: 7-12 years old Not enrolled in school: 12-15 years old Not enrolled in school: 16-17 years old No birth certificate W orking children SUSENAS 56 55 63 27 56 77 26 32 35 41 17 48.52 1.92 1.41 13.9 47.1 43.1 62.6 82.5 46.14 59.13 5.32 25.48 16.3 23.51 15.16 58.15 70.14 5.88 1.46 24.1 16.8 10.6 8.3 5.7 22.7 10.5 10.22 5.15 7.48 3.12 30.3 Percentage of Children Q1 Poorest Q2 Q3 Q4 Q5 Richest 2 The term ‘income’ in this chapter refers to an estimate using expenditure as a proxy