Introduction Child Poverty and Disparities

19 Nevertheless, fulfilling the rights of all children without any discrimination in Indonesia – a large country that has adopted a system of decentralized government – remains challenging. Indonesia covers 3,544,744 square kilometres of ocean and 1,910,931.32 square kilometres of land, and comprises 17,504 islands. Administratively, Indonesia consists of 33 provinces Table 1.2 and 483 autonomous districts and cities kabupaten and kota. Unavoidably, regional variation in natural resources, infrastructure development and the socio-political landscape, compounded by poverty and disparities, hold back the rate progress towards realizing children’s rights equally across regions, urbanrural locations, socio-economic status and community groups. While both children and poverty have always been the focus of Indonesia’s development, there has been no analysis of the condition of children living in poverty in Indonesia. This report is intended as an initial step to fill this gap by presenting and discussing the findings of the Child Poverty and Disparity Study in Indonesia. This report consists of seven chapters. This first chapter, ‘Children and Development’, serves as an introduction to the whole report. An explanation of the background of the study is then followed by a description of the contextual background of the demographic, political, socio-economic and macroeconomic policy settings that potentially influence children’s well-being in Indonesia. Chapter 2, ‘Children and Poverty’, presents the findings of an analysis of children’s poverty and deprivation based on available national data sets in addition to qualitative case studies. This chapter portrays the conditions and trends in child poverty in terms of income, non-income and non-material deprivation. This chapter also contains an analysis of the incidence of multiple-deprivation and the correlations among the various forms of deprivation. The four following chapters – chapters 3 to 6 – present information on the four pillars of children’s well-being, analysing the links between policies and outcomes relating to each of the four pillars, namely: ‘Health and Nutrition’ Chapter 3, ‘Education’ Chapter 4, ‘Child Protection’ Chapter 5, and ‘Social Protection’ Chapter 6. Finally, Chapter 7, ‘Addressing Child Poverty and Disparities’, presents proposed strategies for addressing inadequacies in existing policies and efforts to reduce child poverty and narrow the disparities. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 Province Aceh North Sumatra West Sumatra Riau Jambi South Sumatra Bengkulu Lampung Bangka Belitung Islands Riau Islands Jakarta West Java Central Java Yogyakarta East Java Banten Bali Province West Nusa Tenggara East Nusa Tenggara West Kalimantan Central Kalimantan South Kalimantan East Kalimantan North Sulawesi Central Sulawesi South Sulawesi Southeast Sulawesi Gorontalo West Sulawesi Maluku North Maluku West Papua Papua Area thousand km2 56.50 72.43 42.22 87.84 45.35 60.30 19.80 37.74 16.42 8.08 0.74 36.93 32.80 3.13 46.69 9.02 5.45 Area thousand km2 19.71 46.14 120.11 153.56 37.53 194.85 13.93 68.09 46.12 36.76 12.17 16.79 47.35 39.96 114.57 309.93 Population millions 4.49 12.98 4.85 5.54 3.09 7.45 1.72 7.61 1.22 1.68 9.61 43.05 32.38 3.46 37.48 10.63 3.89 Population millions 4.50 4.68 4.40 2.21 3.63 3.55 2.27 2.64 8.03 2.23 1.04 1.16 1.53 1.04 0.76 2.83 Number of districts 23 30 19 11 11 15 10 11 7 7 6 26 35 5 38 7 9 Number of districts 10 20 14 14 13 14 15 11 24 12 6 5 11 8 9 27 Table 1.2: List of provinces in Indonesia Source:฀Badan฀Pusat฀Statistik฀BPS฀–฀Statistics฀Indonesia฀and฀Ministry฀of฀Home฀Affairs,฀2011 Note:฀฀2010฀Population฀Census,฀preliminary฀igures 20 3 United Nations Children’s Fund, Global฀Study฀on฀Child฀Poverty฀and฀Disparities฀2007–2008฀Guide, Global Policy Section, UNICEF, New York, 2007 available at: www.unicef.orgsocialpolicyfilesUNICEFGlobalStudyGuide.pdf, last accessed 19 June 2012

1.2 Methods

This report is developed based on a study of child poverty and disparities in Indonesia that was conducted from July 2010 to June 2011. The study serves as a pioneering effort to provide a holistic assessment of children living in poverty in Indonesia. Addressing and focusing more attention on the poorest and most disadvantaged children will provide significant support to strengthen policy formulation aimed at fulfilling the rights of children, increasing children’s well- being, and achieving more sustainable long-term poverty reduction. The main objectives of the study were two-fold. The first was to present evidence-based analysis of the conditions of ‘children living in poverty’ using available quantitative and qualitative data, including narrative evidence from children and other stakeholders. The second was to identify the gaps and opportunities in national, and to a lesser extent regional, institutional settings and policies in order to more effectively support the fulfillment of the rights of children. By analysing outcomes and policies together, particularly the links between them, the aim of the study was to generate knowledge on what policies and programmes have most effectively supported the rights of all children, girls and boys, in different contexts. At the same time, by exploring different dimensions of poverty, the results contribute to the understanding of how progress in reducing one aspect of poverty could promote progress in others. The term ‘poverty’ used in the study refers not only to the monetary dimension but also to a multidimensional condition of deprivation. According to UNICEF, as stated in The฀State฀of฀ the฀World’s฀Children฀2005, the working definition of child poverty is as follows: “Children living in poverty experience deprivation of the material, spiritual and emotional resources needed to survive, develop and thrive, leaving them unable to enjoy their rights, achieve their full potential or participate as full and equal members of society.” UNICEF, 2005, p. 18 Regarding the definition of ‘child’, the study follows Indonesian Law No. 232002 on Child Protection and the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child CRC, which both state that a child is a person below the age of 18 years. The focus of the study is at the national level, although disaggregated data from the provincial and district levels are presented where possible. Most of the analysis was conducted using the available national data sets, particularly the National Socio-Economic Survey known in Indonesia by the acronym SUSENAS, in addition to the Indonesian Demographic and Health Surveys IDHS, known in Indonesia by the acronym SDKI and Basic Health Research known in Indonesia as RISKESDAS. Additional data and information were also collected from the official statistics of relevant line ministries and non-government organizations NGOs. These included government regulations, policies, programmes and budgets, as well as relevant studies and assessments. Furthermore, primary data were collected by way of small qualitative case studies carried out in two kelurahan urban precincts in the district of North Jakarta and two rural villages in the district of East Sumba. The case studies were merely intended to provide snapshots of the realities facing poor children and poor communities in urban and rural settings; they are not representative of conditions across the whole country. The approach and methods of the study followed the UNICEF Global฀Study฀on฀Child฀Poverty฀ and฀Disparities฀2007–2008฀Guide, with some modification to adjust for data availability and the Indonesian context. 3 A detailed explanation of the approach and methods is presented in Appendix 1, and descriptions of the qualitative case study areas are presented in Appendix 2. 21

1.3 Children in Indonesia: Demographic context

Indonesia is a populous country characterized by a young age structure. According to the preliminary results of the 2010 population census, the population of Indonesia is approximately 237.6 million people. It is the fourth most populous country in the world, after China 1.33 billion, India 1.17 billion and the United States 310 million. During the past decade, Indonesia’s population increased by an average of 1.58 per cent annually; slightly more slowly than the annual average increase of 1.63 per cent during 1990–2000. The population pyramids for 1990, 2000 and 2010 Figure 1.1 show that the Indonesian population remains predominantly young, although the proportion of youth has tended to decrease. The proportion of children aged under 18 years has continuously declined from 43 per cent in 1990 to 37 per cent in 2000, and to 34 per cent in 2010. Nevertheless, the absolute number of children has increased 4 According to estimation based on data from the 2009 SUSENAS National Socio-Economic Survey, which will be used for most of the analysis in this study, the total number of children was 79.418 million around 37 per cent of the total population. One possible reason for the difference between the two estimates is that SUSENAS does not cover children in special circumstances institutional childcare, dormitories, non-permanent residences, etc.. See further explanation in Appendix 1. during the last decade: from 74 million in 2000 to around 81.3 million in 2010. 4 As reflected in Figures 1.1 and 1.2, the largest proportion of children is within the age group of 5–9 years, and the proportion of boys is always larger than girls under the age of 18 Figure 1.3. The regional distribution of population, including children, is very uneven and Java is still home to most of Indonesia’s population, as shown by the data in Table 1.3. Although the proportions of the population living in Sumatra, Sulawesi, Kalimantan, Maluku and Papua have increased, by 2010 those living in Java still accounted for more than half of the total population. Moreover, Java remains the most crowded island, while Papua is the least crowded. On average, Indonesia’s population density in 2010 was 124 people per square kilometre. Among the provinces, the densest population was recorded in Jakarta, which had 14,440 people per square kilometre. West Papua, meanwhile, had the least dense population with only eight people per Source:฀BPS฀–฀Statistics฀Indonesia,฀various฀years Note:฀฀Preliminary฀igures฀from฀the฀2010฀Population฀Census Age 75+ 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4 Age 75+ 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4 Age 75+ 70-74 65-69 60-64 55-59 50-54 45-49 40-44 35-39 30-34 25-29 20-24 15-19 10-14 5-9 0-4 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1990 Female Female Female Male Male Male 2000 2010 Figure 1.1: Age structure of the population by sex, 1990, 2000 and 2010 22 Figure 1.3: Sex ratio estimates by single age, 1990, 2000 and 2010 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9 0.8 Sex ratio female : male Age 1990 2000 2010 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Source:฀Estimates฀based฀on฀BPS฀–฀Statistics฀Indonesia฀data฀Figure฀1.1 square kilometre. More than half of Indonesia’s children also live in Java, and the provinces with the largest numbers of children are West Java, East Java and Central Java. However, the provinces with the largest proportions of children in their populations are located in eastern Indonesia, including provinces in Maluku, Papua and Sulawesi, and especially the province of East Nusa Tenggara Figure 1.4. 5,000,000 4,500,000 4,000,000 3,500,000 3,000,000 2,500,000 2,000,000 T otal population Age 1990 2000 2010 Figure 1.2: Population estimates by single age, 1990, 2000 and 2010 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Source:฀Estimates฀based฀on฀BPS฀–฀Statistics฀Indonesia฀data฀Figure฀1.1 The regional distribution of population, including children, is very uneven and Java is still home to most of Indonesia’s population, as shown by the data in Table 1.3. Although the proportions of the population living in Sumatra, Sulawesi, Kalimantan, Maluku and Papua have increased, by 2010 those living in Java still accounted for more than half of the total population. Moreover, Java remains the most crowded island, while Papua is the least crowded. On average,