11 participants, in order to infer what is intended, must reconcile what they hear with
what they understand.”
18
According to Abdul Chaer in his book, Linguistik Umum, code-switching is going to happen because of the language differences between an individual and
the community where the speech takes place. Code-switching is the change of language, or variety of language, because of specific reason.
19
Code-switching differs from code-mixing. Code-switching is the point at which the change of language corresponds to a point where the situation changes,
either on its own, or precisely because the language changes. There are other cases, however, where a fluent bilingual who is talking to another fluent bilingual
suddenly changes language without any change at all in the situation. This kind of alternation is called code-mixing.
20
Code-mixing occurs when conversation uses both languages together to the extent that they change from one language to the other in the course of a single
utterance.
21
It means that the conversation just change topic and can involve various level of language, such as morphology and lexical items, even grammar.
The purpose of code-mixing seems to symbolize ambiguous situation for which neither language on its own would be quite right. To get the correct effect,
the speakers balance the two languages against each other as a kind of linguistic cocktail, such a few words of one language, then a few words of the other, then
18
Ibid.
19
Chaer, Abdul. Linguistic Umum. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta. 1994. p. 67.
20
Hudson, Richard. 2
nd
cd. Sociolinguistic. Great Britannia: Cambridge University Press. 1996. p. 53.
21
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistic 4
th
ed. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publisher. 2002. p. 103.
12 back to the first for a few more word and so on. The changes generally take place
more or less randomly as far as subject-matter is concerned, but they seem to be limited by the structure of sentence.
Janet Holmes says, “code-mixing suggests the speaker is mixing up code indiscriminately or perhaps because of incompetence, whereas the switches are
very well-motivated in relation to the symbolic or social meaning of the two codes.”
22
This kind of rapid switching itself is a specific sociolinguistic variety.
C. Types of Code Switching and Code Mixing
Based on Wardhaugh’s theory, code-switching is classified into three types. They are situational code-switching, metaphorical code-switching, and
conversational code-switching, which is called as intra-sentential code-switching or code-mixing. Each type is related to each factor of code-switching namely
participant, solidarity affective function, status, and topic. The first type is situational code-switching. Situational code-switching is
related to the factors of code-switching that are participant, solidarity, and status. Situational code-switching occurs when the language changes according to the
situation in which the conversation the speakers are engaged to. They speak one language in one situation and in a different one.
23
22
Holmes, Janet. An Introduction of Linguistic 2
nd
ed. England: Pearson Education Limited. 2001. p. 50.
23
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 4
th
ed. Massachusetts: Balckwell Publisher. 2002. p. 103.
13 The situation of code-switching happened because the switches between
languages always coincide with changes from one external situation, for example, talking to member of the family, to another, for example, talking to neighbors.
24
Situational code-switching describes about arrival of a new person and status relation between people, or the formality of their interaction. For example, a
person switches from English to Maori to greet his or her friend. The Maori’s greeting is an expression of solidarity, so a code-switching may be related to a
particular or addressee.
25
Metaphorical code switching occurs within a single situational, but adds meaning to such components as the role-relationship, which is being expressed.
According to Blom and Gumperz, which is quoted by Hudson, metaphorical code switching is where the choice of language determines the
situation. Blom and Gumperz give an example from their research in a town in Northern Norway, Hemnesberget, where there is a situation. “In the course of the
morning spent at the community administration office. We notice that clerk used both standard and dialect phrases, depending on whether they talking about
official affairs or not. Likewise, when residents step up to a clerk’s desk, greeting and inquiries about family affairs tend to be exchanged in the dialect, while the
business part of the transaction is carried on in standard.”
26
24
Hudson, Richard. 2
nd
ed. Sociolinguistics. Great Britannia: Cambridge University Press. 1996. p. 24.
25
Holmes, Janet. An Introduction of Linguistic 2
nd
ed. England: Pearson Education Limited. 2001. p. 41.
26
Hudson, Richard. 2
nd
cd. Sociolinguistic. Great Britannia: Cambridge University Press. 1996. p. 25.
14 Example like this shows that speakers are able to manipulate the norms
that govern the use of varieties in just the same way as they can manipulate those norms that govern the meanings of words by using them metaphorically.
Furthermore, Wardhaugh says metaphorical code-switching is a change of topic requires a change in the language used we have. The interesting point here is
that some topics may be discussed in either codes, but the choice of code adds the distinct flavor to what is said about the topic.
27
According to Wardhaugh, intra-sentential code-switching, or conversation code-switching, is the same as code-mixing. Wardhaugh states that conversational
code-switching is a switch of codes within a simple utterance without any associated topic change.
28
D. Factors Influencing Code-Switching and Code-Mixing
According to Holmes, there are four factors that may influence people to switch code, they are:
1. Participants. The participants that use code-switching to his or her partners because they have certain will and goal. If a group of people are
talking in one language and a non-speaker enters, they will switch code or topic or both. Viewing from the personality of the participant, there are
27
Wardhaugh, Ronald. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics 4
th
ed. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publisher. 2002. p. 103.
28
Ibid. p. 108.
