Definitions of Terms INTRODUCTION

may start with whichever element heshe is ready to start with and then moves back and forth to other steps. The sequence and the order are hisher choice. However, Kemp reminds us that wherever the elements started the first thing to be considered must be the objectives as a starting point and the evaluation as the final points. The broken line in the diagram indicate revisions of elements made necessary by evaluation data gathered on students accomplishment of objectives Kemp, 1997: 9 1. Goals, Topics and General Purposes A goal means something that someone expected to achieve. The educational program is developed to serve those goals. Within curriculum areas, topics are chosen for study, for each of which the teacher explicitly expresses the general purposes Kemp, 1997: 13. General purposes means what students generally expected to learn as a result of instruction. Goals may be derived from three sources – society, students and subject areas Kemp, 1997: 14. After establishing goals, the next step is listing the topics. Topics are usually sequenced according to a logical organization, from simple to complex level or from concrete to more abstract levels. 2. Learner Characteristics Serving both group and individual means obtaining information about the learners’ capabilities, needs and interests. There are two factors of learners’ characteristics Kemp. 1997: 19. They are academic factors and social factors. Besides the characteristics, we should know about the learning styles and learning condition. Learning refers to groups of factors that can affect a person’s ability to concentrate, absorb and retain information. This kind of information can be obtained of from students’ cumulative records and from consultations with other teachers, students’ counsellors and advisers. 3. Learning Objectives Learning objectives concern to learning as the outcome of instruction. Objectives for learning can be grouped into three major categories – cognitive, psychomotor and effective Kemp. 1977: 24 In stating objectives, a teacher should use two essential parts and two optional parts. The two essential parts are action verbs and content references Kemp, 1977: 29. The optional parts are a performances standard and criteriacondition. 4. Subject Content Students’ learning experience must involve subject content. The content, in turn, must closely relate to the objectives and to the students’ needs. Subject content comprises the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge facts and information, skills procedures, condition requirements and attitudinal factors of any topic Kemp, 1977: 44. 5. Pre-Assessment Through data gathered about learner characteristic, a teacher has already acquired general knowledge about the background of individual students. In order to get the information, you can conduct prerequisite and pre-testing Kemp, 1977: 51. Prerequisite testing determines whether students have appropriate background preparation for topic. While pre- testing determines which objective students may have already achieved. 6. TeachingLearning Actives, Resources A teacher should determine the most efficient and effective methods. Then select materials to provide learning that will relate with each objectives. As a matter of fact, there is no exact formula for matching activities to objectives Kemp, 1997: 56. A teacher needs to know the strength and weakness of alternative methods that heshe will use. 7. Support Services These services include funds, facilities, equipment and personnel whose time must be scheduled for participation in the instructional plan Kemp, 1977: 84. 8. Evaluation It is a payoff step in instructional design plan Kemp, 1977: 91. A teacher should be ready to measure the learning outcomes of the students. The objectives indicate what the evaluation should be. b. Yalden’s Model Yalden offers a communicative syllabus in designing a set of instructional materials. The kind of syllabus that incorporates a consideration of all ten components is increasingly referred to as communicative Yalden, 1987: 87. The principle on which a syllabus is structured is different from those for selecting the