students. In order to get the information, you can conduct prerequisite and pre-testing Kemp, 1977: 51. Prerequisite testing determines whether
students have appropriate background preparation for topic. While pre- testing determines which objective students may have already achieved.
6. TeachingLearning Actives, Resources
A teacher should determine the most efficient and effective methods. Then select materials to provide learning that will relate with each
objectives. As a matter of fact, there is no exact formula for matching activities to objectives Kemp, 1997: 56. A teacher needs to know the
strength and weakness of alternative methods that heshe will use. 7.
Support Services These services include funds, facilities, equipment and personnel
whose time must be scheduled for participation in the instructional plan Kemp, 1977: 84.
8. Evaluation
It is a payoff step in instructional design plan Kemp, 1977: 91. A teacher should be ready to measure the learning outcomes of the students.
The objectives indicate what the evaluation should be. b.
Yalden’s Model Yalden offers a communicative syllabus in designing a set of instructional
materials. The kind of syllabus that incorporates a consideration of all ten components is increasingly referred to as communicative Yalden, 1987: 87. The
principle on which a syllabus is structured is different from those for selecting the
linguistic content to be included in it. The teacher has to ensure that the learners acquire the ability to communicate in a more
In order to understand the process of constructing this type of syllabus, it is the best to start at the next higher level in the language learninglanguage-teaching
process that is by examining the overall process of planning a second-language program. The diagram that follows illustrates the planning of instructional system.
Figure 2.2 Yalden’s Instructional Model Yalden, 1987: 88
1. Needs Survey
It entails carrying out a survey of the communicative needs of the learners for whom the program is being prepared Yalden, 1987: 88. This
stage is conducted to obtain as much information as possible about the learners in order to establish the objectives of teaching learning activities.
2. Description of the Purpose
It is for to be prepared in terms of students, characteristic and students skill on entry to and on exit and from the program.
3. Selection of Syllabus Types
It is in terms of proto syllabus and physical constraint on the program Yalden, 1987: 96. The syllabus does not only concern with anything to
be taught and the way to do it. It also concerns with the teaching materials such as textbook and exercise as the realization of syllabus itself.
Needs Survey
Descrip tion of
purpose Select
ion of syllabus
type Prod. of
proto- syllabus
Prod. of
pedago gical
syllabu
Dev. and implement
ation of classroom
procedure
Evalu ation
4. Proto Syllabus
In this stage, the content of the syllabus will be decided. It means the description of language use to be covered in the program Yalden, 1987:
96. The designer specified the description of the content of the syllabus. Selection and combination of contents are designed in line with the type
of the syllabus. 5.
Pedagogical Syllabus It means the development of teaching, learning and testing
approaches. It consists of development of teaching materials and testing sequence and decision on testing instrument Yalden, 1987: 96. The
specification of every single words and phrase will be conducted in this step. Therefore, the production of proto-syllabus will be developed
completely. 6.
Development and implementation of classroom procedures It consists of selection of exercise types and teaching techniques,
preparation of lesson plans and preparation of weekly schedules Yalden, 1987: 89. Then the teacher implements the materials to the learners in the
classroom. 7.
Evaluation It consists of two broad aspects. The first one is testing the students in
the program. The second aspect is the teaching as well as the overall design of the course should be assessed Yalden, 1987: 96
2. English for Specific Purposes Methodology
Method has always something to do with approach. Richards and Rodgers 1986: 15 says the relationship between method and approach as follows:
`“Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language materials, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the
selected approach. An approach is axiomatic and method is procedural.” According to Hutchinson and Waters 1987: 5, ESP is very important in English
language teaching. ESP is an approach to language learning, which based on learner need. The foundation of ESP is a simple question: Why does this learner
need to learn a foreign language? 1987: 19 In brief, ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on
the learner’s reason for learning. According to Hutchinson and Waters 1987: 128-130, there are some basic
principles of language learning which provide the bases for learning-centered methodology of ESP:
1. Second language learning is a development process
The existing knowledge is the foundation of comprehending new information. It is the teacher’s task to establish and develop it. If the teacher is able to
develop the existing knowledge of the students, the process of second language learning will be successful.
2. Language learning is an active process
Having the knowledge without trying to use it would not result in maximum success of language learning.
3. Language learning is a decision-making process
There must be an internal process inside the learners when learning takes place. Using knowledge and the ability the learners’ posses, the new
information is processed so it would be understandable. Understanding means the learners have reached some predetermined points of measurement. It
implies the role of target; to what degree learning is successful. 4.
Language learning is not the learners’ first experience with language According to Swan as quoted by Hutchison and Waters 1994: 129, each of
the second language learners is already competent in mastering a language. The students do not know the specific forms or words in the target language,
but they know what communication is and how it is used. Therefore, learners’ knowledge of communication should be exploited in second language
learning by asking students to predict before reading. 5.
Learning is an emotional experience Our concern is to develop positive emotions, for example: put more emphasis
on the process of giving an answer rather than the product of giving the correct answer.
a. Need Analysis
It is the most important characteristic feature of ESP course design. Needs analysis means a complex process, involving much more than simply
looking at what the learners will have to do in the target situation. It may be done informally and personally through one-to-one sessions
with students, in which the teacher talks through such issues as the students’ perception of their learning style, learning assets and learning goals. It also
can be done formally through conducting a needs assessment instrument in the form of questionnaire. Needs analysis is needed to determine target needs
as a means to measure the needs Richards and Rogers 1986: 78. Target needs means what the learner needs to do in the target
situation. It consists of necessity, lacks and wants Hutchinson and Waters 1987: 55.
1 Necessities
It means what the learner has to know in order to function effectively in target situation. We can get the information by observing what situation
the learner will need to function in and then analysing the essential parts of them.
2 Lacks
After identifying necessities, the teacher has to know what the learner knows already so that heshe can decide of the necessities the learner
lacks. 3
Wants It is an additional aspect. Here, the learner plays an active role. It is a
must for the learners to have a view as to what their needs are.
b. Learning Needs
We have to consider the starting point lacks and the destination necessities, and also the route, that is, the route to reach our destination
from the starting point. The route indicates another kind of needs Hutchinson and Waters 1987:60.
Analysing what people do tells a little about how they learn to do it. Yet, ESP process is concerned not with knowing or doing, but with learning.
We cannot base a course design simply on target objectives, just as a journey cannot be planned merely on the starting point and the destination. The needs,
the potential and constraints of the route learning situation must be taken into account if we want to analyse the learners’ needs Hutchinson and
Waters 1987:60. .
c. Syllabus
According to Hutchinson and Waters 1987: 80, a syllabus is a document, which says what will or at least what should be learnt in ESP
course design. A syllabus plays a very important role for teachers in designing an
instruction. Robinson 1991: 34 defines syllabus as “a plan of work used by the teacher as a guideline and context for class content.”
There are three types of ESP syllabus according to Robinson 1991: 35. They can be described as follows:
1. Content-based syllabus
It is concerned with the product of the learning. There are four kinds of content syllabus:
a. Language-form syllabus
It consists of an ordered set of language items. Usually, it is ordered from less difficult to most difficult.
b. Notional-functional syllabus
The content of language learning is a collection of functions for example: greeting, asking information, advising or a collection of
notions for example: time, space, age, colour that are performed when the language is used.
c. Situational syllabus
The syllabus is organized according to the sequence situation in chronological
order. d.
Topic-based syllabus It develops the content of work or space study. The specialized
content is utilized in order to encourage the students to learn. For the guides of Agrowisata-Turi, for example, the topic must be of agricultural
terms. 2.
Skill-based syllabus Skill-based syllabus gives emphasis on the skills that are necessarily
mastered to facilitate the learning. Skill-based syllabus is divided into two:
a. Language-skills syllabus
This type of syllabus refers to the development of the four types of language skills. Those are productive skills speaking and writing
and receptive skills listening and reading b.
Learning-skills syllabus The development of the syllabus goes not only for the division of
language skills but also for the constituent of language skills namely sub-skills and micro skills.
