Theoretical Description THEORETICAL REVIEW
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7 Support Services
Kemp included funds, facilities, equipment, and personnel whose time must be scheduled for participation in the instructional plan. It can be said that the
facilities that are stated by Kemp support the teaching learning activities because when the facilities are not available it may hinder the planned programme.
8 Evaluation
Kemp stated that evaluation is the payoff step in the instructional design plan. When the designer has the evaluation it means that the designer is ready to measure
the learning outcomes relating to the objectives. From this statement, it means that evaluation is an important element to measure the accomplishment of the stated
objectives in order to help the designer to revise the instructional design or not.
Revision
Learner Characteristic
Learning Objective
Subject Content
Pre- assessment
TeachingLearn -ing Activities
Resources Evaluation
Support Service
Goals, Topics and General
Purposes
Figure 1. Models of Instructional System Kemps, 1977: 9
b. Yalden’s model
Yalden 1983: 88 divided the instructional design into seven steps, which are:
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1 Need survey
According to Yalden, when a need survey is being undertaken there is potentially a great deal of information to be gathered. The reason for this entire
information gathering is to understand as much about the learners as possible prior to the beginning of the programme in order to establish realistic and acceptable
objectives. 2
Description of purpose Here, the next step for the system designer is to clarify the purpose of the
language programme. This will establish the foundation for the major decision facing the language course designer when he arrives in the stage III, the selection of a
syllabus type. 3
Selection or development Here, Yalden implied that no single model of syllabus design which is
universally agreed upon. It means that the designer should realize the strengths and the weaknesses of the syllabus design that is being taken or the designer can combine
more than one syllabus in order to make the course design more reliable. 4
The proto syllabus At this stage, the syllabus designer will turn to the description of the content
that the syllabus will have, that is the preparation of syllabus specifications. In other words, the designer will examine the syllabus that is chosen.
5 The pedagogical syllabus
In this step, the pedagogical syllabus provides a repertoire of words and phrases, chosen as exponents of functions and suitable to the topics identified as
important to the learner. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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6 Development and implementation of classroom procedure
In this step, the designer can develop the syllabus design in order to get the syllabus that is relevant with the communicative language teaching. Not only
develop the syllabus, but the teacher also implies the syllabus into the teaching and learning activities in the classroom.
7 Evaluation toward the students, the programme and teaching process
Returning to the process of developing a language programme, it can be seen that the final phase is evaluation, which has two broad aspects. First, one would wish
to evaluate or test the students in the programme; next, the teaching as well as the over all design of the course should be assessed.
Needs Survey
Descrip tion of
purpose Selection
developm ent of
syllabus type
Product ion of a
proto- syllabus
Production of a
pedagogical syllabus
Developm ent and
implement ation of
classroom
procedure Evaluat
ion
Figure 2. Language Programme Development Yalden, 1983:88
2. The Materials Design
According to Hutchinson and Waters 1994: 107 there are two main parts in materials-producing techniques, namely defining objectives and materials design
model. Those can be described as follow: a.
Defining objectives In defining the purpose of the materials, the designer can identify some
principles which will guide the designer in the actual writing of the materials. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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1 Materials provide stimulus to learning. Good materials do not teach; they
encourage learners to learn. 2
Materials help to organise the teaching learning process, by providing a path through the complex mass of the language to be learnt. Good materials should
provide a clear and coherent unit structure which will guide teacher and learner through various activities in such a way to maximise the chances of learning.
Therefore, a materials model must be clear and systematic, but flexible enough to allow for creativity and variety.
3 Materials embody a view of the nature of language and learning. Therefore,
materials should truly reflect what the author thinks and feels about the learning process.
4 Materials reflect the nature of the learning task. The designer must now take a
more modest view and recognise that language learning is very complex and little understood process. For that reason, materials should try to create a balanced
outlook which both reflects the complexity of task, yet makes it appear manageable.
5 Materials can have a very useful function in broadening the basis of teacher
training, by introducing teachers to new techniques. 6
Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use. The last principle is the necessary function of materials, but it is not the only purpose that
makes the result of materials become simply a statement of language use rather than a vehicle for language learning.
b. Materials design model
Hutchinson and Waters 1994: 108 stated that the materials design model consists of four elements: input, content focus, language focus and task.
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1 Input
This may be a text, dialogue, video-recording; diagram or any piece of communication data, depending on the needs the teacher has defined in the analysis.
The input provides a number of things which are stimulus material for activities, new language items, correct models of language use, a topic for communication;
opportunities for learners to use their information processing skills, and opportunities for learners to use their existing knowledge both the language and the subject matter.
2 Content focus
Language is not an end itself, but a means of conveying information and feelings about something. Non-linguistic content should be exploited to generate
meaningful communication in the classroom. 3
Language Focus The aim is to enable learners to use language, but it is unfair to give learners
communicative tasks and activities for which the learners do not have enough of the necessary language knowledge. In language focus learners have the chance to take
the language to pieces, study how it works and practise putting it back together again.
4 Task
The ultimate purpose of language learning is language use. Materials should be designed, therefore, to lead towards a communicative task in which learners use
the content and language knowledge they have built up through the unit. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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INPUT
TASK LANGUAGE
CONTENT
Figure 3: A materials design model Hutchinson and Waters, 1994:109
3. The Communicative Language Teaching
Richards and Rodgers 2001:159 stated that the Communicative Approach in language teaching starts from theory of language as communication. The goal of
language teaching is to develop the communicative competence. In order to explore more about Communicative Language Teaching, this part consists of three main
components, namely communicative view, communicative activity and communicative task.
a. Communicative View
Littlewood 1983 in Communicative Language Teaching: an introduction, looked closely to the communicative view, by dividing it into four parts, namely
Functional views of language, Understanding functional meanings, Expressing functional meanings, and Understanding and expressing social meanings.
1 Functional views of language
Littlewood 1983 stated language is used as a means of communication. Therefore, functions view which concern on the specific situational and social factors
arouse. Littlewood 1983 adds just as functional view can divide a single linguistic PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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into a number of functions, so also can a single communicative function be expressed by a number of linguistic forms. It means that the speaker can use many linguistic
options when he wants to say one meaning. 2
Understanding functional meanings Littlewood 1983 stated that there are three corresponding aspects of the skill
involved in understanding meanings. First is the ability to understand linguistic structures and vocabulary. Second is knowledge of the potential communicative
functions of linguistic forms. Third is the ability to relate the linguistic forms to appropriate non-linguistic knowledge, in order to interpret the specific functional
meaning intended by the speaker. Those three aspects reveal that the hearer should comprehend not only the
linguistic knowledge but also the relation to the specific functional meaning. The foreign language learners should be able to develop the strategies to understand the
meaning of what the speaker wants to say in order to achieve the communicative functions.
3 Expressing functional meanings
Littlewood 1983 stated that communication is a two-sided process. When someone speaks, the speaker is constantly estimating the hearer’s knowledge and
assumptions, in order to select language that will be interpreted in accordance with our intended meaning.
Due to his statement, it can be said that the speaker must master the functional views. The speaker should realize the hearer’s background knowledge, the
social situation that is involved in the communication process. Moreover, the speaker should be able to select the strategy that will make the communication process works
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effectively. Related to the foreign language learners, they need to acquire not only the linguistic knowledge but also the strategies that can help them to communicate
effectively in a real situation. 4
Understanding and expressing social meanings Littlewood 1983 said that one factor determining the speaker’s choice of
language is the knowledge that he assumes the hearer to possess. A further important factor is his interpretation of the social situation in which communication is taking
place: language carries not only functional meaning, it also carries social meaning. Therefore, it can be said that if we want to communicate with someone, we
have to be able to comprehend the functional view and the strategy that can make the hearer understand of what we are intended to say as the speaker. Furthermore, the
speaker should be able to read the social situation that happens in the communication process.
b. Communicative Activity
Littlewood 1983 stated that the teacher may have designed the activity so as to provide an opportunity for the learners to produce language that they had already
learnt so that it can lead the learners to communicate meanings effectively. Due to the statement, this part will approach the communicative activity by describing the
purposes of communicative activities, 1
Purposes of Communicative Activities This part consists of what the teacher might hope to achieve, through
communicative activity in the classroom, therefore the following four headings are the summary of the contributions that communicative activity can make to language
learning. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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a Communicative activities provide ‘whole-task practice’
Littlewood 1983 stated in foreign language learning, the means for providing learners with whole-task practice in the classroom is through various kinds
of communicative activity, structured in order to suit the learners’ level of ability. Thus, through the various communicative activities, the learners can be provided the
whole task practice that is suitable on their level ability in order to make the learners easier to achieve the goal of the lesson.
b Communicative activities improve motivation
Litlewood 1983 defined that the learner’s ultimate objective is to take part in communication with others. Their motivation to learn is more likely to be
sustained if they can see how their classroom learning is related to the objective and helps them to achieve it with increasing success.
It means that communicative activities can make the learners motivate themselves in learning the target language by providing the relevance between the
learning activities and the objectives. By being motivated, the learners can help themselves to achieve the objectives of the classroom activity that is to communicate
with others using the target language. c
Communicative activities allow natural learning Littlewood 1983 revealed that many aspects of language learning can take
place only through natural processes, which operate when a person is involved in using the language for communication. It can be said that communicative activities is
important in the learning process because they provide the learners to use the natural processes in order to acquire the language learning.
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d Communicative activities create a context which supports learning
Communicative activity provides opportunities for positive personal relationships to develop among learners and between learners and teacher. These
relationships can help to ‘humanise’ the classroom and to create the environment that supports the individual in his efforts to learn. It means that communicative activities
develop the relationship between the learners and the teachers so that it will build a conducive classroom environment that will support or motivate the learners to make
a progress of their language learning process. 2
Learner-directed Activity Littlewood 1983 stated that in many communicative activities the teacher
creates a situation and sets an activity in motion, but it is the learners themselves who are responsible for conducting the interaction to its conclusion. From this statement,
it can be said that in communicative activities, there will be a learner-centred approach. Therefore, the learners should actively take part in every activity in order
to make the communicative activity runs effectively. The teacher is only a facilitator. 3
The Teacher’s Role in Communicative Activities Littlewood 1983 stated that especially in the more creative types of activity,
unnecessary intervention on the teacher’s part may prevent the learners from becoming genuinely involved in the activity and thus hinder the development of their
communicative skills. However, this does not mean that once an activity is in progress, the teacher should become a passive observer. His function becomes less
dominant than before, but not less important. From this statement, it can be said that the teacher’s role in the
communicative activities is still very important, but here the teacher’s role is to make PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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the students become active and monitor the students’ development in performing their language ability.
4 Types of Communicative Activities
Littlewood 1983 divided the communicative activities into two types; they are functional communication activities and social interaction activities.
• Functional communication activities The main purpose of this activity is that learners should use the language they
know in order to get meanings across as effectively as possible. In other words, it can be said that how the learners can communicate with others related to the situation
that happens. • Social interaction activities
We can devise communication activities which place emphasis on social as well as functional aspects of communication. In other words the learners should
focus not only in the terms of the functional effectiveness of the language, but also in terms of the social context in which the interaction takes place.
c. Communicative Competence
Paulston and Bruder 1976: 55 stated that generally communicative competence is taken to be the objective of language teaching: the production of
speakers competent to communicate in the target language. Francis Johnson as quoted by Paulston and Bruder 1976: 56 pointed out that communication requires
interpersonal responsiveness, rather than the mere production of language which is truthful, honest, accurate, etc. Communication arises when language is used as
interpersonal behaviour. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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Dell Hymes as cited by Paultson and Bruder 1976: 56 argued that communicative competence must include not only the linguistic forms of language
but also knowledge of communicative function itself such as when, how and to whom it is appropriate to use the language.
d. Communicative Task
For communicative tasks, Nunan 1989: 10 has offered this definition: “the communicative task is a piece of classroom work which involves learners in
comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused on meaning rather than form.” According to
Steven Tait, M.Ed. TESOL http:www.englishclub.comtefl-articlessuccessful- communicative-tasks communicative activities are fluency-based activities. While
such activities may involve students practicing a particular grammatical form, they are likely to do more than this. The key element is that the activity is based around a
realistic situation. It means that in communicative activities, students learn language related to the real situations that are closely related with the student’s everyday
experiences. Nunan 1989 stated the framework for analyzing communicative tasks.
Goals Teacher
role
Input TASKS Learner
Role
Activities Settings
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Goals may relate to a range of general outcomes communicative, affective or cognitive or may directly describe teacher or learner behaviour. We can know goal
from an examination of a task. Input is a task consists of some input and one or more related activities. Input refers to the data from the point of departure for the task. In
fact, input for communicative tasks can be gathered from a wide range of sources. Activities specify what learners will actually do with the input as the beginning of
learning task. Pattison as cited by Nunan 1989: 68 proposes seven activities types. Those activities are as follows:
1 Questions and answers
These activities are based on the notion of creating an information gap. The aim of this activity is for learners to discover their classmates’ secret choices. This
activity can be used to practice almost any structure, function, or notion. 2
Dialogues and role-play If learners are given some choice of what to say, and if there is a clear aim to
be achieved by what they say in their role-plays, the learners may participate more willingly and learn more thoroughly than when they are told to repeat a given
dialogue in pairs or in a group. 3
Matching activities The task for the learner is to recognize matching items, or to complete pairs
or sets. 4
Communication strategies These activities are designed to encourage learners to practice communication
strategies like a paraphrasing, using gesture and asking for feedback. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
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5 Picture and Picture stories
Many communication activities can be stimulated through the use of pictures. 6
Puzzles and problems These require learners to make guess, draw their general knowledge and
personal experience, use their imagination and test their powers of logical reasoning. 7
Discussion and decisions These require the learners to collect and share information to reach a
decision.
4. The Speaking Skill
Here, in order to draw near with speaking skill, the writer will divide it into two, namely the nature of speaking and teaching speaking.
a. The nature of speaking
Rivers 1970 stated that students come to the study of a foreign language in high school with the strong conviction that language means something spoken.
Through speech, man expresses his emotions, communicates his interactions, reacts to other persons and situations, and influences other human beings.
Brown and Yule as cited by Nunan 1989: 26 stated that spoken language consist of short, often fragmentary utterances, in a range of pronunciations.
Moreover, speaking has the interactional function, in which the primary purpose of speech is the maintenance of social relationship.
b. Teaching speaking
Rivers 1970 stated that the teaching of the speaking skill is more demanding on the teacher than the teaching of any other language skill. The principle of teaching
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speaking is that the teacher will need to give the students many opportunities to practice the speaking skill. The teaching of the speaking skills involves two levels of
activity; the first is the forging of the instrument requires much practice in the arbitrary associations of the new language. Second, the student who is to speak a
language so as to express his personal meaning needs much practice in this process of generating new sentences to suit his purpose.
Hughes 2002 stated that teaching speaking is not easily separated from other objectives. A further complicating factor is that when the spoken language is
the focus of classroom activity there are often other aims which the teacher might have: for instance, helping the students to gain or practice some aspects of linguistic
knowledge or to raise awareness of some socio-linguistic or pragmatic point the communicative functions
5. The 2006 Curriculum
Based on the Education Ministry Degree number 22 year 2006 about content standard and number 23 year 2006 about graduated competence standardisation, the
writer used the 2006 curriculum, Pusat Kurikulum Balitbang Depdiknas, 2006 as the basic for designing the instructional materials. Here, in order to get close with the
2006 curriculum, the writer will divide it into two, namely the background of 2006 curriculum and English Study Program 2006 Curriculum for Vocational High
School. a.
The Background of 2006 Curriculum Based
on Pusat Kurikulum Balitbang Depdiknas Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan
Pendidikan, 2006, the 2006 curriculum is an operational curriculum that is arranged
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and implemented by each education unit. It has three main purposes. First, elementary
education has a purpose to put the basic cleverness, knowledge, personality and the ability to live independently and continue it into higher level.
Second, intermediate education has a purpose to increase cleverness, knowledge, personality and the ability to live independently and continue it into higher level.
Third, vocational elementary education has a purpose to increase cleverness, knowledge, personality and the ability to live independently and continue it into
higher level based on their specific field. The 2006 curriculum is a form of the basic and intermediate curriculum. It is
developed based on each group or education unit and school committee or madrasah under the coordination and supervision of education and religion ministry for basic
education and province for intermediate education. The basic of this curriculum is on the content Education Ministry Degree number 22 year 2006 and graduated
competence standardisation Education Ministry Degree number 23 year 2006 that is designed by the National Education Standards Boards BNSP.
b. English Study Program 2006 Curriculum for Vocational High School
Based on the 2006 curriculum Standar Kompetensi dan Kompetensi Dasar Mata Pelajaran: Mata Pelajaran Bahasa Inggris untuk Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan
SMK Madrasah Aliyah Kejuruan MAK, 2006: 384, Language is a device to
communicate with others both oral and written. Enable to communicate means the person is able to comprehend or produce oral and written sentences. Enable to use
language covers listening, speaking, reading and writing skills that can be used for socializing with others.
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English is an adaptive study programme. The purpose is to provide the students with the ability to communicate in English both oral and written which is
suitable with their specific field. English study programme is expected to help the students to master Basic English knowledge and skills for supporting the specific
field achievement. It also has an intention to implement the students’ ability to communicate both oral and written at intermediate level.
The scope of English study programme at vocational high school curriculum covers three aspects. First is basic English communication in novice level which is
for the first grade students. Second is basic English communication in elementary level which is for the second grade students. Third is basic English communication in
intermediate level which is for the third grade students.