p [p]
p m
[m] m
w [w]
w and u f
[f] f and v
d [d] and [t]
d t
[t] t
n [n]
n l
[l] l
r [r]
r z
[z] z
s [s]
s f
[f] sy
ñ [ñ]
ny ʒ
[ ʒ]
j ʧ
[ ʧ]
c j
[j] y and i
ɡ [ɡ]
g and k k
[k] k
ŋ [ŋ]
ng x
[ks] kh
h [h]
h Ɂ
[Ɂ] k and Ø
i [i] and [ɪ]
i e
[e] and [ɛ] e
ə [ə]
e u
[u] and [ʊ] u
o [o] and [ɔ]
o a
[a] a
aw -
au ay
- ai
oy -
oi ey
- ei
3. Error Analysis
Error in pronunciation may lead into unintelligibility Hoffmann and Siebers, 2009: 50. It means that the mispronunciation can cause
misunderstanding. The listeners may not recognize what the speaker means because of the mispronunciation. Thus, error analysis is a tool to investigate how
the learners obtain an L
2
. Corder states that the errors provide the researcher with PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
evidence of how language was learnt in Ellis, 2008: 45. He also states that the errors are served as devices by the learner who discover the rules of the target
language TL.
a. Identification of Errors
Error is a situation when the deviation arises as a result of lack of knowledge or competence. On the other hand, mistake is reflecting processing
failures as a result of competing plans, memory limitations, and lack of automaticity. To illustrate, some learners will have no difficulty in making simple
sentence such as ‘My sisters are older than me.’ However, they still make mistake when changing the sentence into ‘My three sister are older than me.’
The final issue is whether infelicitous uses of the L
2
should be considered as erroneous or not. The example of this issue is in the sentence taken from Ellis
‘One day an Indian gentlemen, a snake charmer, arrived in England. He was coming from Bombay.’ 2008: 49. The proper grammar choice should be ‘had
come’. The word ‘was coming’ is considered as the speaker wishes to emphasize the action duration.
It is important to acknowledge the interpretation. As Corder states that there are three types of interpretation. They are summarized from Ellis 2008: 49.
The first one is normal interpretation which occurs when the analyst is able to assign meaning of the utterance on the basis of TL. The second one is an
authoritative interpretation. It involves in asking the learner to say what the utterance means so that the researcher creates an authoritative reconstruction. The
last one is plausible interpretation. It can be obtained by referring to the context in PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI
which the utterance was produced. It can be also by translating the sentence into the learner’s L
1
.
b. Description of Errors
The description involves a comparison of the learner’s idiosyncratic utterance with its reconstruction in the TL with a baseline corpus of native-
speaker language. Corder distinguishes three types of error according to their systematicity as mentioned in Ellis 2008: 51.
i. Pre-systematic errors happen when the learners do not aware of the
existence of certain rule in the TL. ii.
Systematic errors happen when the learner has discovered a rule but it is the wrong one.
iii. Post-systematic errors happen when the learners have already known the
correct TL rule but use it inconsistently.
c. Explanation of Errors
Taylor points out that one of the error source may be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, epistemic, or may reside the discourse structure in Ellis, 2008:
53. In psycholinguistics, it concerns with the nature of the L
2
knowledge system and the learners’ difficulties while using it in production. Sociolinguistic sources
are about the learners’ ability to adjust their language in accordance with the social context. Epistemic sources concern the learners’ lack of knowledge. The
last one is discourse sources gain the problems in the organization of information into a clear text.
