Implications for teaching practice
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students receive more specialised instruction from two sources, which are, fundamentally, the same processes of reading and writing.
For literacy programs in cross-cultural traditional societies, these implications mean that
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teacher-training courses can be short because all aspects of the two instructional processes do not need to be taught initially to each trainee
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less financial outlay is needed than would be necessary for longer training courses when teaching all aspects to all participants
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teachers can concentrate on the preparation and instruction of only one area, which allows for more control, greater motivation, and less competition between teachers, and
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students have two teachers to whom they relate, which allows for a better understanding of the two areas of emphasis and more control over their own learning.
One further implication for teaching practice is evident from a combination of the literature review in Chapter 2—on the importance of the syllable in beginning literacy instruction Adams
1990; and others—and the research results of the two empirical studies in this project. In aspects of the teaching program that address bottom-up strategies, it is recommended that, for
phonemically written orthographies, the syllable is the unit from which to begin breaking the code. The syllable seems to be the optimal point from which both learning to read and write
words and by extension, sentences, and texts, and learning to manipulate and control phonemes for spelling and reading accuracy can be initiated.
In Chapter 2 also, a particular point of discussion centred on the inconclusive evidence regarding a connection between the orthographic regularity of the soundsymbol correspondence
and teaching method. This discussion suggests that a pedagogical framework is needed that capitalises on and makes room for the different kinds of orthographic soundsymbol relationships
and the relationship between such orthographies and the construction of meaning in text. Evidence from this project suggests that the Multi-Strategy method provides such a framework.
It allows for a multiplicity of soundscript relationships to be accommodated productively, regardless of differences in regularity and whatever unit of representation phoneme, morpheme,
syllable, or word is required for a specific language. Such a framework seeks to capitalise on the long history of literacy instructional methods practised in industrial societies, in order to allow a
range of techniques for literacy acquisition to be accommodated.
One area of difficulty for implementation of the method in rural areas, where means of economic gain are minimal, is that finance is needed for two teachers’ salaries instead of one.
The attrition rate can be high so a surplus of teachers needs to be trained. There are fewer problems with salaries when a group of teachers work together. When there are two teachers per
class, mutual help can be given so that the classes can continue when teachers need to be absent.
Training teachers by holistic, “model-do” techniques—which cover the basic structure and application of the lessons similar to the pattern described in Chapter 2 Davis 1991:53—fits the
cultural learning pattern the teachers in the Tok Pisin program described as “show and do; look and follow.” In the two studies, training in short courses followed by practical application in the
classroom with regular in-service, discussion, and practice as described in Chapter 3 was found to be an acceptable and practical way of training.
The type of in-service that developed through the expertise of the supervisor in the Urat program was the “model-do” method of interaction which lessened embarrassment through non-
threatening participation. There was focus on each specific lesson in a routine that allowed
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each teacher to explain the procedure or demonstrate the way the lesson was presented in the classroom, and
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discussion
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to highlight the differences and emphasise the preferred way to do each activity
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to clarify the main principles, verify the purpose for each activity and thus, teach theory in context after practical experience, and
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to encourage the use of innovative ideas that kept the principles intact. As mentioned earlier, the attitude of the teacher was a strategic factor in the practical
application of training. Previous training and experience determined the authority over the way the material was presented in some cases, despite demonstrations and encouragement to follow
the goals and instructional procedures of the particular program. There was a marked difference between the way that the teachers in each method preferred to work.
This research revealed that, in times of insecurity, there was a tendency for the teachers to revert to teaching with well-known strategies learned from previous experience. It was important
that enough teacher-training be given to help the trainees master the procedural patterns and gain some understanding of the purpose behind each activity, so that they felt secure in their role as
teacher. These studies also revealed that it was more beneficial to help teachers understand theoretical orientation in short in-service courses after periods of practical experience, rather than
to hold prolonged courses of training in the initial stages.
The nature of the research, with high motivation and pressure to proceed, was such that time was not allowed for a full trial of the materials. This meant that the person chosen as the
supervisor was not experienced in teaching practice or in the methods of instruction. It seemed that not having these two prerequisites in place was a potential drawback for the programs and
the research. Steps were taken to give the supervisor as much training and experience as possible with the two methods prior to the beginning of the program. It was also decided that this man
should take part in the teaching program to give him vital experience for his ongoing supervisory role.
One of the parameters for the research was to fit the programs to the particular circumstances of the communities involved, with the community members participating in all
decisions. This condition took precedence over aspirations for ideal preparation and follow-up procedures. It is recommended that in setting up a new program steps be taken for full
preparation of all aspects of the research methodology chosen see Bhola 1990b, to minimise problems during implementation.
In summary, some general guidelines for successful, ongoing literacy follow from this research. These guidelines are strongly supported by the outcomes of the two studies,
particularly in respect to Urat, and they point to the following kinds of general principles:
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Community members should be involved and should have a sense of control over the program.
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The attitude of teachers and, by extension, the attitude of learners should be positive, with those involved understanding something of the purpose behind the teaching patterns so that
motivation, progress, and an ongoing sense of accomplishment are fostered.
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Adequate time should be allowed for systematic, controlled instruction to bring about learners’ awareness of the phonemegrapheme relationship, through the context of syllables,
words, and sentences, and to foster learners’ accountability in the learning process.
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Adequate involvement with print, where emphasis is on holistic activities with texts, should be included in the curriculum to ensure meaning-centred acquisition of the reading and
writing processes by the learners.
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Adequate care should be taken to match activities to the learners with respect to age and status.