READING WRITING
WORD PARTS
letters syllables
to
UNDERSTAND
the
NEW WORDS TEXTS
sentences to
UNDERSTAND
the
MEANING LETTER
FORM AND SPELLING
for
OTHERS to READ
the
WORDS CREATIVE
TEXTS
for
OTHERS to READ
the
MESSAGE
Figure 6.3. Necessary components for an initial literacy curriculum Figure 6.3 shows that there are two basic areas of literacy: Reading and Writing. For these
two areas to be fully mastered there are two components necessary for each area:
•
For Reading it is necessary to master reading
•
the parts of words—either by recognising and combining single letters or syllables—to understand how to read new words, and
•
of texts connected sentences that make sense with understanding of the meaning.
•
For Writing it is necessary to master the
•
skill of writing words accurately with clear letters and correct spelling so that others can read the text, and
•
process of thinking and writing down thoughts so that others can understand the message. Including instruction in reading and writing with focus on the “script code”—how to read
and write accurately—separately but concurrently with focus on the “meaning code”—how to read and write to understand and convey the meaning—as presented in the Multi-Strategy
method is an example of helping learners to acquire the necessary components for learning to read and write and to sustain literacy.
This research has shown the value of presenting holistic, generative reading and writing consecutively, so that, cognitively, the creative purpose of the literacy task is realised and
practised by the learner without being inhibited by the need for accuracy. The research also has shown the value of teaching the more meticulous, mechanical tasks of reading and writing
consecutively, so that the learner can concentrate on learning to decipher the words of the text accurately and to spell automatically. This ensures understanding when reading and the ability to
convey the message when writing. Any program which has adequate inclusion of the necessary components as stated above, regardless of implementation methodology, has potential for
success.
There are also a number of other criteria necessary for successful community literacy which have been addressed in the body of this study. The requirements in any local community will
differ; Graddol 1994 summarised these points in relation to communities in India:
The dominant form of educational discourse which will emerge in a particular community can be expected to be one which satisfies a variety of local cultural requirements. It must establish a proper
authority relation between student and teacher; it must package knowledge in forms appropriate for the age and status of the students in that community; it must incorporate a model of learning which
is acceptable to the community; it must accomplish these in contexts of class size and mixed social backgrounds of students; and it must accomplish all these in a way which is learnable by teachers in
the kind of training available Graddol 1994.
The import of Graddol’s comment is that the extent to which these “local cultural requirements” are met, is the extent to which we can expect the results that are envisaged. Therefore, in
planning and developing a literacy program, the crucial component must be the involvement of the local community so that
•
a proper authority relation between teacher and student is established
•
the curriculum fits the age and status of the students in the community
•
the model of learning is acceptable to the people in that community
•
the class is made up of people with socially acceptable backgrounds
•
the size of the class is appropriate, and
•
a training program is available for the teacher to gain the expertise to accomplish all that is planned.
When decisions related to these kinds of program requirements are controlled by members of the local community involved, there are strong prospects that the outcomes will include sustained
educational changes for that community.
Educational changes in literacy programs can to be considered from two perspectives: from the perspective of the members of the cultural group among whom the program has been
implemented, and from the perspective of outside administrators and policy makers. The above discussion has been concerned with “success” from the point of view of the participants. The
project has emphasised the need for culturally relevant materials and pedagogies, and for control and ownership by the communities involved as a means of developing a realistic value system
for literacy within the society. Although the kind of individual testing procedures included in this project were not culturally appropriate, they were included in order to answer questions for other
audiences.
The need for such testing was noted by Limage 1993 in relation to evaluating the progress of adult learners in the context of industrialised societies:
Since examinations of all types can lead to stress for the learner, most perceptive adult educators have avoided testing where possible. When funding of programmes depends on such evaluation,
however, programmes have had to compromise Limage 1993:32.
In order to answer certain questions about educational practice, such as, administrative procedures, teacher training, and methods of instruction, the assessment procedures in this
project were administered as a compromise to meet requirements of the different audiences. Such audiences view programs from a broader perspective, that is, to provide information for
evaluators and policy makers, for educators, program designers, and funding agencies. Therefore, in assessment of student learning there is a tension of audiences: one, immediate and
local; the other, long-term and international. The need for further research in this area is considered in the next section.
6.4. Suggestions for Future Research
There are several aspects of this project that suggest the need for further research, such as
•
research methodology
•
socio-cultural factors
•
linguistic structure of the target language
•
refinement of the instructional method
•
assessment procedures, and
•
adaptability to other settings. Some general suggestions for such research emerge from the research procedures of the two
studies and are now presented: 1.
The research design, following Bhola’s analysis of evaluation of projects mentioned above, was a “rationalistic” design evaluated within a community-based setting with some
“naturalistic” research techniques such as observation and interviews included. Future research using a naturalistic paradigm with ethnographic data collection within a
“Management Information System” see Bhola 1990b:75ff, similar to that which was used in the present programs, would be helpful for comparison. Such research would, of necessity,
have clearly defined parameters and include intensive, personal interaction of the researcher in data collection. Ideally, a trained researcher from within the language group as a co-
researcher would add to the socio-cultural accuracy of the enquiries and observations.
2. In this project, focus on socio-cultural factors and the participatory functions of community
members took precedence. Further study in this area, where community involvement is more intertwined with planning and implementation, and where outcomes in relation to
maintenance and diffusion of literacy are documented, could lead to valuable information on the importance of cultural identity and language in literacy pursuits. See Dubbeldam 1994
for further insights into socio-cultural research. Dubbeldam noted that
if one believes that literacy should be attuned to the needs of a particular population, proper research, in which the people concerned do actively participate, is an essential
requirement…. Literacy research demands a multi-disciplinary approach. It concerns both technical linguistic and educational aspects, but also cultural, social and economic aspects
Dubbeldam 1994:421.
Dubbeldam has asserted the importance of active participation of the people in literacy practice so that the dimensions of “cultural, social and economic aspects” are encompassed.
He also recognised the need, however, for the technical aspects concerned with the linguistic and educational fields. Documentation of further research in “multi-disciplinary” programs
could help by providing models for practitioners that fit the socio-cultural domains and allow participation and control by the participants.
3. In planning for this project, two languages with contrast in phonological complexity were
sought. A language with relatively simple phonology, including a predominantly consonant- vowel syllable pattern, in a suitable location and with other suitable conditions was not
found. Therefore, the replication was carried out in Tok Pisin. In light of the hypothesis on second language literacy proposed above, a project including two vernacular languages, one
with a complex phonological structure and the other with a relatively simple phonology, could give further insight into the problems of literacy instruction in languages with complex
linguistic structures. The project could include the Multi-Strategy method compared with the Gudschinsky method or other methods currently being used for adult literacy.
4. Further studies concentrating on the components of the Multi-Strategy method could be
beneficial in refining the techniques for maximum learning. For example, literacy programs have been carried out in Papua New Guinea using the Multi-Strategy method with
Gudschinsky materials substituted for the Word-Building Track and taught alongside the Story Track Simpson 1988. As discussed in Chapter 3, one main difference between the
workbooks of the Multi-Strategy method and the primers of the Gudschinsky method is the inclusion of sight words and sight affixes in the Gudschinsky materials. There could be some
value in future research which compares two Multi-Strategy programs, where workbooks are different in specific areas such as the rejection or inclusion of sight words and sight affixes.
Such research would have value in determining the correlation between ease or difficulty of preparation of the primers and the quality and ease of instruction and learning.
5. The discussion above, which centred on assessment for evaluative purposes, showed the need
for concentrated research in this area. It will be recalled that there was stress for the learners in the early stages of testing in the present project. In the village setting, checking on the
progress of learners is necessary for the benefit of the teacher and can be done informally. When results are necessary for evaluators and policy makers, however, there need to be some
guidelines for testing procedures. Further research, building on the proposed methods in the present research or developing other techniques, could be beneficial for evaluating progress
of learners and programs.
6. In this research, there are indications of some of the benefits of initial mother-tongue literacy
over initial second-language literacy. Statistically, the small numbers in some cells and lack of comparable instruments for testing on some variables did not make cross-language
comparisons viable in this project. Further research, with the efficacy of initial mother- tongue literacy in focus in similar implementations, could be valuable for practitioners and
policy makers.
7. Although this study has been framed as a cross-cultural study, the underlying theories of
literacy acquisition were derived from studies of research in industrialised nations and, therefore, could conceivably be applicable to pedagogy in those settings. It could be valuable
for practitioners to conduct further research to determine if advantages from separating the pedagogical techniques as practised in the Multi-Strategy method are applicable to
classrooms in industrialised nations. The Multi-Strategy method makes the agenda of practice in the classroom clear and focused, allowing students to enter into activities with
informed expectations and with a sense of closure at completion. Such a scenario is completely different from that portrayed in the research by Baker and Freebody 1989 see
especially Chapter 7, where agenda criss-cross continually. A study comparing a classroom showing practices, such as those documented by Baker and Freebody, and a classroom where
instruction follows the dual approach of the Multi-Strategy method could supply valuable information on the reactions and progress of the students both socially and cognitively.
In an attempt to make literacy applicable and a value in the societies of Papua New Guinea, the long-term experiences of the researcher were combined with indigenous expertise to develop
a useful literacy curriculum. In this project, attention was given to the details of pedagogy for adult learners, and community involvement in the cultural and social aspects combined with the
technical, linguistic, and educational aspects. The combination of quantitative and qualitative
