Although the interpersonal relationships of an individual are bound up in the family and clan within the village setting, there is a further set of relationships surrounding the “dual division of
all adult males in a village into two ‘identical’ groups” Allen 1976:39. In cultural affiliation
groups are ritually opposed in ceremonial exchanges and in initiations into the secret men’s cult, now widely known by the Pidgin term, tambaran. The dual division deeply influences all
aspects of village life, determining to a large extent relationships between people within the village and links between villages Allen 1976:39.
Allen’s study, giving details of the significance of the relationships between members of the opposing groups, reveals that some ceremonies connected with this inherited, cultural affiliation
were still practised in the late 1970s.
Obrist van Eeuwijk 1992:59, concentrating on the Kwanga area, which is described more fully in the following chapter, gives a description of the “exchange partner” relationships in the
opposing division. These relationships were of a different quality from the open competition at the dual division level. In the partner exchanges, balance was the overriding objective with each
of the two men gaining in status and authority through the exchanges. Allen points out that, “in contrast, relationships between halves of the dual division were characterised by intense
competition. The opposing group were seen as a constant threat and source of danger” Allen 1976:41.
As the influence of the government and mission groups became more prominent, these dual division ceremonies connected with the tambaran cult were discontinued. The overt division of
male members of a village into two opposing groups is no longer evident but there are practising exchange relationships between individuals and groups. There also still seems to be a strong
competitive spirit between males within the society. This may be connected with a deep cultural value to do well in all activities, but could have its roots in the opposing dual division so
prominent in ritualistic ceremonies being practised just two decades prior to this study.
The leadership and cohesion of individuals within each village had a bearing on the decisions made in the literacy program: where the schools were located; who were chosen to be
teachers; with whom each teacher worked and, ultimately, which classes remained in the program. As indicated earlier, the focus for identification of an individual was the village, not the
language. Villages began to be identified as belonging to language groups after contact Allen 1976:28. The focus of the next section is on the main people involved in the program and their
participation in the proceedings.
4.2. Participants
The participants in the Urat study speak the Central dialect of Urat. Most of the people in this group live along the Sepik Highway, west of Dreikikir and within walking distance between
villages of no more than an hour of time see Figure 2.1. Residents of the two Northern villages, Nanaha and Musengwah, speak a slightly different dialect with one phoneme change and some
vocabulary differences. As explained in Chapter 2, it was considered that such minor differences would not present a difficulty in the literacy program. Decisions regarding the program were
made through discussions with village leaders, community members, and the linguist, who was, at the time, resident in Tumam. The researcher used English and Tok Pisin, the lingua franca, to
communicate with the people. Otherwise, Urat was the language used in interactions. The main participants of the Urat study, the teachers and the learners, are now described. We first consider
the selection, training, and allocation of the teachers.
4.2.1. The teachers
At the outset, village leaders met with prominent men from the region to discuss literacy and to choose a Regional Literacy Supervisor. The District Member of Parliament worked on a plan
with the leaders to develop a Regional Literacy Centre at Dreikikir. They chose a man from Tumam village to supervise and coordinate literacy in the area, so the people contributed the
finances for him to attend a National Literacy Course in the East New Britain Province, where the Multi-Strategy method was being introduced by staff from the University of Papua New
Guinea. At this course he developed basic materials in Urat and printed the books using a hand silk-screen printer.
At the completion of the course, he returned to the village where the people chose seven men to accompany him to a regional workshop, where the Multi-Strategy method was being
taught by the researcher. The linguist from Tumam attended the course as the Urat language adviser. During this time more materials were produced and the basic materials refined. At the
completion of this course, the people of Nanaha village selected two men to be trained to teach the Gudschinsky method of instruction. The ten men chosen to become teachers had all
graduated from the formal education system with a standard of Grade 6 the sixth year of formal schooling but two of the Multi-Strategy group had had some vocational training.
The training course for the Gudschinsky method was held at the main centre for the Summer Institute of Linguistics SIL where more facilities related to the method were available. The
course was held for four weeks with the researcher doing the basic training. Assistance was given by a sociolinguist who was experienced in the Gudschinsky method and the two linguists
studying the Urat language. At this time the Gudschinsky primer for Urat was developed and a detailed teacher’s manual was prepared. The SIL Literacy Coordinator checked the Gudschinsky
materials and gave advice. The man chosen to supervise Urat literacy also attended the course for the purpose of gaining an understanding of the Gudschinsky method and to assist in the
preparation and refinement of materials for both methods. On the completion of the Gudschinsky training session, everything was in place to determine the number of people motivated to learn to
read and write.
4.2.2. The learners
In the initial stages, the most southern villages, Musemblem, Musingwi, and Tumam, were chosen for one treatment, the Multi-Strategy method. The most northern village, Nanaha, having
some slight dialect differences and being the most distant village, was chosen for the other treatment, the Gudschinsky method. In choosing Nanaha, it was considered that the physical
situation would be helpful in controlling the effect of contamination between the two treatment groups. New Gudschinsky materials needed to be prepared so it was also helpful to include the
dialect changes in the books. During the initial survey, the Musengwah people decided to take part. This group was placed with the Multi-Strategy villages because of the closeness in
proximity to the southern villages. As will be seen later in this chapter, their close ties with Nanaha, through language and social interaction, had an effect on their performance.
People in the target populations, who were interested in learning to read and write, were encouraged to take part in the literacy contact survey. Those who could read were asked not to
respond. The purpose of the survey was to sort the people into groups:
