The orthographic inventory is realised as follows: a b,mb ch d,nd e g,ng
hl,lh hr,rh
hy,ih i j,nj
k l m n ny
o p r s sy t u w
hw,uh y Subsequent to the research, the symbol for the velar nasal was changed to
as explained in Appendix A.
The orthographic conventions are as follows: The voiced stops b d g and the affricate j are written with prenasalisation
word medially as
mb nd ng
and
nj.
The voiceless consonants hl hr hw hy are written as
lh rh uh ih
in syllable-final positions Barnes 1994.
The analysis of the Urat vowel system is presented in Figure 2.3. Front Central Back
i u e o
a Figure 2.3. Vowel system of the Urat orthography
A typical vowel system of the Sepik languages, including languages of the Torricelli phylum, is the seven-vowel system Foley 1986:48–54; Laycock 1984 presented in Figure 2.4.
Front Central Back i
u
e
o a
Figure 2.4. Typical vowel system of Sepik languages In the Urat phonology, a potential orthography problem of contrast between vowels in the central
position is avoided by a pattern of vowel harmony. The vowel a is pronounced central in
unstressed syllables. Likewise, other vowels tend toward central in unstressed syllables and
vowel harmony helps to determine which vowel to write, for example,
y
koh
stressed in the final syllable is written as
yokoh.
Although this system is acceptable and does not pose a problem for mature readers, there are some potential complications for beginning literacy.
Another area which adds to the complexity of the phonology of this language is the distribution of phonemes within syllables and syllables within words. The obligatory components
of a syllable are a consonant and a vowel CV. There are six combinations with an optional
consonant syllable initial and up to two optional consonants syllable final: maximum expansion from CV is CCVCC. Combinations of two-vowel sequences, with optional i or u as the second
member of the sequence are
ei ai oi ui eu au ou.
Words are formed with combinations of the syllable patterns up to four syllables, for example:
•
CVC
kum
‘hawk’
•
CV.CVC
yowor
‘meat’
•
CCV.CV.CVC
kruesep
‘pumpkin’
•
CVV.CV.CCVC.CV
loutungwarmbe
‘wooden cross’ When consonant sequences occur across syllable boundaries, especially in longer words, the
difficulties are compounded for the beginning reader and writer. There are also difficulties in the spelling system for Urat resulting from complications with
morphophonemic rules. There are seven general rules Barnes 1989 to explain omission and elision of phonemes in the formation of words, but there are exceptions to four of these rules
with over-differentiation in spelling to satisfy community reactions to the orthography. When considering the potential difficulties for literacy in Urat, the method of instruction chosen—
particularly the initial code-breaking patterns introduced compare Stanovich 1986 and the Matthew effects—needed to be carefully planned.
2.3.3. Pertinent aspects of Tok Pisin
The other language of instruction used in the project was Tok Pisin, a lingua franca and one of the three official languages of Papua New Guinea. For Tok Pisin, which Foley 1986:38
noted “has a simple phonemic system,” the consonants and vowels are presented in Figure 2.5.
Bilabial Alveolar
Velar Stops vl.
p t k
vd. b d
g Fricatives vl.
s h
Nasals vd. m n
Laterals vd. l
Vibrants vd. r
Semi-vowels vd. w
y Front
Central Back
i u
e o
a Figure 2.5. Consonant and vowel systems of the Tok Pisin orthography
When comparing the Tok Pisin system with that of Urat above, the array of symbols to distinguish the phonemes is far more complex for Urat. Adding other complexities as described
for Urat makes a strong contrast between the two languages. One restriction for the phonology of Tok Pisin is that “the voiced stops may not occur word finally” Foley 1986:38.
In Tok Pisin, a vowel is the only obligatory component of a syllable with up to three consonants syllable-initial and one optional consonant syllable-final. The two-sequence vowel
combinations are restricted to
ai, au,
and
oi.
Combinations of these CV patterns makes a total of ten possible syllable patterns which occur in words of up to four syllables, for example:
•
CV.CVC.
antap
‘on top’
•
CVVC.CV.CV
raunwara
‘a lake’
•
CV.CV.CV.CV
marimari
‘pity’ Four-syllable words are not common and are usually compound words or reduplications.
Grammatical functions are mainly signalled by compounding, juxtaposition, or order of words. Words are generally short, there is a minimum of inflection, and the forms are regular.
Mühlhäusler 1977 identified four varieties of sociolects for Tok Pisin from which Foley 1986:37 distinguished three current varieties: the bush varieties, rural varieties, and urban
varieties. For literacy purposes, one of the greatest difficulties is found in interference: from English in the urban varieties; and from first-language interference in the bush varieties. The
variety of Tok Pisin used in this project was the rural variety which Foley noted was the most widespread and stable variety spoken predominantly by lowland-dwelling people:
Rural Tok Pisin is the most stable of varieties, due to the fact that it is the major means of communication for speakers of widely divergent language backgrounds. The factor favours
conservation, so as not to impede understanding, as does the isolation of these speakers from the anglicizing influences emanating from the urban centres Foley 1986:37.
The stability of this variety of Tok Pisin, spoken by the people in the villages of the replication study, was advantageous for preparation of materials. Consistent spelling references were taken
from The Jacaranda dictionary and grammar of Melanesian Pidgin Mihalic 1971. Two areas of difficulty occurred in this study: the first was the degree to which the people understood the
lingua franca, and the second was due to interference from Kwanga, the first-language.
Kwanga belongs in the Middle Sepik stock of the Sepik-Ramu phylum Laycock 1973:74– 75. There are three main dialects and the study was conducted in the Tau villages of the
northern dialect. A full description of the phonology is not pertinent to the discussion, but the differences between Tok Pisin and Kwanga in the area of the stops and fricatives had some effect
on the reading and writing of Tok Pisin. Similar to Urat, the stops and fricatives of Kwanga
5
have obligatory prenasalisation with voicing. A feature of Tok Pisin, however, is the clear distinction of the voiced and voiceless stops without obligatory prenasalisation with the
voicing. Since this distinction does not occur in Kwanga, difficulties were encountered, especially in spelling. In Kwanga, for example, there was no distinction made between such
words as tok ‘talk’ and dok ‘dog’. A further complication occurred between Tok Pisin and
5
Note that reference to Kwanga in this context specifically refers to a tentative orthography, which was constructed for the particular dialect spoken in the Tau villages for trial literacy purposes after the study was
completed.
