Developing the method in a socio-cultural context

Papua New Guinea, despite the traditional learning styles of observation, imitation, active participation, and learning by doing, there seemed to be insurmountable obstacles to introducing the whole language instructional techniques in the different cultural settings. Firstly, in non-formal, beginning literacy in Papua New Guinea, it is necessary to recruit men and women with little or no previous training and to instruct them in the teaching patterns during short courses. On the other hand, a whole language teacher needs to be fully trained with expertise in guiding individuals in the processes of reading and writing, especially in areas where specific teaching is needed. An example of such teaching could be the need for more individualised, incidental teaching of graphophonics for reading new words and for spelling. Goodman 1992:50 noted that one role of whole language teachers among many roles is to collaborate with learners “in defining and solving problems and seeking answers to questions.” Secondly, there are virtually no printed materials in many of the 862 reported languages of Papua New Guinea from which to set up a print environment to provide the necessary literature, whereas whole language instruction is dependent on an available variety of suitable literature for the levels of progress of learners to develop into literacy. Finally, teachers trained for short periods need a purposeful, straightforward, structured approach, without a strong dependency on instructional aids, whereas whole language teachers “make their own decisions and build their own implementations based on their own understandings” Goodman 1992:47. The literature review of theory and practice of literacy in Chapter 2 shows that it is necessary to include both top-down and bottom-up processes at some time in the instructional process; contention is based on the degree of focus in any one area. The practical issue is not on the necessity of grapho-phonemes, syntax, and meaning for the reading process, but on where and how to begin to break the code into literacy. The discussion in Chapter 2 covered the differences between a bottom-up emphasis e.g., Shuy 1975 and a top-down emphasis as exemplified in whole language instruction Goodman 1992. In the development of the curriculum for the Multi-Strategy method, it was argued that, if learning to read involves both behaviour skills and cognitive processes, then breaking the code from both positions concurrently at the onset of reading and writing seemed appropriate. In such a model, the more traditional methods of instruction for the letter-sound correspondence could be presented as well as instructional methods from whole texts with emphasis on meaning for the linguistic and pragmatic contexts of reading and writing. As pointed out in Chapter 2, this division is not inconsistent with theory presented by cognitive psychologists such as Sweller 1990. Separate emphases on the two approaches—bottom-up, soundsymbol print relationships and top-down, holistic, meaning-centred print relationships—would allow the inclusion of appropriate socio-cultural contexts to be reflected in the materials and instructional procedures. It was realised that the development of a method with a dual emphasis would be compatible with additional socio-cultural factors: pragmatic, sociological, and psychological. From a pragmatic point of view, it was necessary to formulate strategies that could • be presented in short, group oriented training courses and workshops for teachers • be handled by teachers innovatively after an understanding of the basic principles • fit into a simple, straightforward structure, and • require a minimum of daily preparation and making of aids such as books, charts, and flash cards on which each lesson would depend. With respect to social relations, the method needed to allow • teachers to have status, responsibility and satisfaction in their respective areas • teachers to work together without competing, and • learners to participate in group learning contexts with peer teaching and learning. In the psychological area • teachers needed to be confident and in control in their respective areas of responsibility, and • learners needed an opportunity to be in control of their own learning for a positive introduction to literacy to be generated. Keeping these socio-cultural factors in mind, a two-track model was developed Stringer 1988 with both tracks involving all levels of the reading and writing processes, but with separate and distinctive emphases. One emphasis was holistic, meaningful learning with cognitive strategies of meaning and comprehension in focus. The other emphasis was analytic, step-by-step learning of syllables and letters from the context of meaningful words and sentences, with awareness of phonemes and syntax in focus. Teachers were given training in both areas, but each person specialised and became the teacher for one track, according to his or her preferred teaching and learning style. The dichotomy of holisticanalytic is analogous with the cognitive learning styles of field independentfield dependent discussed in Chapter 2. The model was tested in the Enga Province of Papua New Guinea Stringer 1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1990, incorporating multiple strategies within the two separate patterns of instructional procedures as reported in Chapter 2. The success of this trial prompted the writing of a resource book Stringer and Faraclas 1987 to help people develop a literacy program in a language where previously literacy has not been conducted. The book includes many aspects for a complete literacy program; from an initial survey and orthography design if needed, through teacher training, instructional classes, to ongoing classes for fluent readers and creative writers. The method was refined to describe clearly the basic elements needed in a successful literacy program. The model and materials used in the adult programs in Urat and Tok Pisin are now presented.

3.2.2. Model and materials

The main features of the model are as follows: 1. Two distinct ways of presenting literacy from different theoretical orientations: one emphasis on holistic creativity in reading and writing for meaning; the other emphasis on learning discrete skills necessary for reading and writing 2. Two different ways of training teachers to present the materials: one emphasis on learning how to teach students to use holistic strategies when reading and writing; the other emphasis on learning how to teach students to use different strategies to read new words and write with correct spelling In relation to the reading process, Duffy and Roehler 1987 defined strategies in contrast to skills: Strategies are plans readers use flexibly and adaptively, depending on the situation. Skills in contrast are procedures readers overlearn through repetition so that speed and accuracy are assured every time the response is called for Duffy and Roehler 1987:415. The point Duffy and Roehler made was that skills needed to be taught so that “students conceptualized reading as a strategic process and used skills strategically,” rather than as automatically learned procedures, “to remove blockages to meaning in real text.” Clay discussed the importance of acquiring “strategic control” for independent reading Clay 1991:288–289 and stressed that learning to read and write involves a literacy learning system that encompasses a “network of strategies” Clay 1991:325–345. In the Multi-Strategy method, different strategies are used for both approaches. Effort has been made to teach skills in relation to context and meaning, not as isolated elements that “readers overlearn through repetition” without reference to meaning and control in the literacy process. In Figure 3.2, a model for the Multi-Strategy method is presented: PROCESSES OF READING AND WRITING Story Track Word-Building Track Student- Centred Content Control Emphasis on Holistic Creativity with Meaning and Comprehension Acquired by practising Creative Acts Emphasis on Analytic Skills and Accuracy of Form Learned by practising Discrete Skills Teacher- Centred Content Control SELF-INTEGRATION FLUENT READERS AND WRITERS Figure 3.2. The two-track model of the Multi-Strategy method In the two separate and distinct approaches—the Story Track and the Word-Building Track 9 — learners are provided opportunities to learn in different ways. They are given • the chance to choose the ways to learn that suit them best • time to learn when they are cognitively ready • opportunities to build on what they know, and • experiences to become competent in extending beyond what they know. Separating the reading process according to the two distinct approaches is shown by defining the process of gaining literacy in two ways: as acquisition and learning. The main difference is 9 The Word-Building Track material is not in the form of worksheets with written exercises that each learner completes per lesson but a series of four books. The first is a reading readiness book which includes visual discrimination and other readiness exercises. The other three are primers to teach reading through the grapho- phoneme relationships of the language.