productive speaking and writing tasks. In the next cycle, the learners spend more time in productive work.
3 Recycling
This principle allows the learners to encounter target language items in a range of different environments, both linguistic and experiential. The
learners will see the language functions in relation to different content areas.
4 Active learning
This principle allows the learner to learning by doing. They could be practicing memorized dialogues to completing a table or chart based on
some listening input. The key is that the learner who is doing the work. 5
Integration This principle shows that learners should be taught in ways that make clear
the relationships between linguistic form, communicative function, and semantic meaning.
6 Reproduction to creation
This principle encourages the learners to move from reproductive to creative language use. It means that the learners should reproduce
language models provided by the teacher, textbook, or the tape. 7
Reflection This principle allows the learners to reflect on what they have learned and
how well they are doing.
d. Developing Unit of Materials
Developing unit of materials is one of the stages in developing a course book. A course book usually consists of some units and each unit has a
number of tasks or activities. Developing the unit can be based on the writer’s beliefs, understanding, and experience. It can be also based on the result of
needs analysis. According to Graves 2000:156, developing materials should follow several considerations such as the learners, learning process, language,
social context, activity, task types, and the materials.
e. Task Grading and Sequencing
Task grading and sequencing are related to the decision in what way the tasks should be presented. These components affect how the developed
materials of this research are arranged. It means what to teach first, what second, and what the last in a course book. Richards,
et al
1986:125 via Nunan 2004 describes that grading is “the arrangement of the content of a
language course or textbook so that it is presented in a helpful way. Gradation would affect the order in which words, word meanings, tenses, structures,
topics, functions, skills, etc. are presented. Gradation may be based on the complexity of an item, its frequency in written or spoken English, or its
importance for the learner ”. In addition, Graves 2000 states that sequencing
involves deciding the order in presenting the materials.
There are some key components of input, the learner and procedures proposed by Nunan 2004. The components will be explained as follows.
1 Grading input
The first thing to consider is the complexity of the input. The grammatical factors will be very important. The grammatical complexity will be
affected by the length of a text, propositional density, the amount of low- frequency vocabulary, the speed of spoken texts and the number of
speakers involved, the explicitness of the information, the discourse structure and the clarity with this is signaled.
2 Learner factors
Learner factors are all those that the learner brings to the task of processing and producing language such as background knowledge,
interest, motivation, etc. Brindley 1987, cited in Nunan 2004: 120 proposes a list of questions
that need to be considered in relation to each of these factors.
Table 3: Learner Factors Factor
Question Confidence
How confident does the learner have to be to carry out the task?
Does the learner have the necessary level of confidence?
Motivation
How motivating is the task?
Prior learning experience
Does the task assume familiarity with certain learning skills?
Does the learner’s prior learning experience provide the necessary learning
skillsstrategies to carry out the task?
Learning pace
How much learning material has the
