In addition, Brown 2001 proposes the nature of reading through three theories namely bottom-up and top-down processing as well as schemata
theory. Led by Goodm an’s 1970 cited in Brown 2001:298-299 states the
bottom-up processing requires the readers to recognize a multiplicity of linguistics signals and use their linguistics data-processing mechanism to
impose some sort of order on these signals. Meanwhile the top-down processing, Brown 2001 says this is a process in which the readers draw on
their own intelligence and experience to understand a text. This process requires the readers’ background knowledge before they read a text. The last
is schemata theory which not only requires the background knowledge of the readers. Further Brown 2001 states that schemata is the condition where the
readers bring information, knowledge, emotion, experience, and culture.
Besides, Harmer 1983 also defines reading as a receptive skill which has two purposes. Firstly is reading instrumental. It means that the reading
activity takes place because it will help a person to achieve some clear aims. In other words, instrumental reading is done when a person has an intended
purpose in mind. The second one is pleasurable reading. It means that reading takes place only for pleasure. As an example is when people read magazines,
illustrated cartoons, photo-stories and so on. Based on the previous theories, it can be said that reading is the skill to
extract the stated and implied meaning of the text. The process of extracting the meaning can be obtained through recognizing linguistics signals, the
reader’s background knowledge, emotion, experience, and culture.
b. Micro and Macro Skills of Reading
The micro and macro skills of reading are important things in order to develop the materials. The product of this research has applied some of the
micro and macro skills based on the result of needs analysis. They will be developed in form of tasks and various activities.
Harmer 1983:201-202 classifies the different skills of reading. These skills will frequently depend on what the readers are reading for. He classifies
the skills as mentioned below. 1
Identifying the topic
This skill requires the readers’ ability to pick up the topic of a written text very quickly. The readers can use their own schemata in deciding
the idea or topic of the text.
2
Predicting and guessing
Sometimes after the readers identified the topic, they try to guess in order to try and understand what is being written about. Then, they try
to predict what is coming or guess the content from their initial
glance.
3
Reading for general understanding skimming
This skill expects the readers to do reading for general comprehension. They need to get a quick idea of a text by having a
quick look at the text before plunging into it for detail.
4
Reading for specific information scanning
This skill is different from the previous skill. This skill aims to get specific information. For example, a reader may quickly look through
a film review to find the name of the director or the star. 5
Reading for detailed information
This skill aims to help the readers to understand what they are reading in detail. This is usually the case with written instructions or
directions.
6
Interpreting text
The readers are expected to be able to see beyond the literal meaning of words in a passage. They can use a variety of clues to understand
what the writer is implying or suggesting.
In addition, Brown 2003:187-188 also gives more specific English reading skills as stated below.
1 Micro Skills of Reading
a Discriminate among the distinctive graphemes and orthographic
patterns of English. b
Retain chunks of language of different lengths in short-term memory. c
Process writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose. d
Recognize a core of words, and interpret word order patterns and their significance.
e Recognize grammatical word classes nouns, verbs, etc., systems e.g.,
tense, agreement, pluralization patterns, rules, and elliptical forms. f
Recognize that a particular meaning may be expressed in different grammatical forms.
g Recognize cohesive devices in written discourse and their role in
signaling the relationship between and among clauses.
