Review of Previous Studies

case, to the truth of the expressed proposition” Searle, 1976. Searle explains that to examine utterances which contain representatives, the utterances should be able to be “literally” classified into “true or false” Searle, 1976. Representative direction is to fit words to the world. Verbs which are categorized into representatives are: hypothesize, insist, boast, complain, conclude, deduce, and some of “Austin’s expositives and many of his verdictives” Searle, 1976. Yule 1996 adds statements of fact, assertions, and descriptions into representative acts p. 53. In addition, Cutting 2002 includes claiming and predicting in this type. Cutting 2002 provides two examples of representative type: ‘The fact that girls have been outstripping boys academically has been acknowledged for the past 12 years or so.’ and ‘I came; I saw; I conquered’ p. 17. b. Directives This type of speech act is “to get the hearer to do something” Searle, 1976. Searle mentions several verbs which are included in directive acts. They are ask, order, command, request, beg, plead, pray, entreat, invite, permit, advise, dare, defy, challenge and some of “Austin’s exercitives” Searle, 1976. The point of directives is the speaker tries to fit the world into words through the hearer. Two examples of directive which are taken from Cutting 2002 are ‘Better remain silent and be thought a fool, than open your mouth and remove all possible doubt.’ and ‘Do not unto others as you would they should do unto you. Their tastes may not be the same.’ p. 17. c. Commissives Searle 1976 states that commissives is the type of speech acts that is to “commit the speaker to some future course action”. Several verbs which are in commissives class are listed by Cutting. The verbs are promise, offer, threaten, refuse, vow, and volunteer Cutting, 2002. Yule 1996 adds pledge into commissive class p. 54. This type is the type of speech act in which the speaker tries to fit the world into the words through the speaker himself or herself. An example of commissive class was taken from Cutting 2002: ‘I’ll make him an offer he can’t refuse.’ p. 17 d. Expressives This type of speech act is rather different from the other types. Searle 1976 states that this class of speech act is “to express the psychological state specified in the sincerity condition about a state of affairs specified in the propositional content”. Verbs that include in this expressive class are thank, congratulate, apologize, condole, deplore, and welcome Searle, 1976. Cutting 2002 adds praise and regret into the verb list of expressive class. An example of expressive act which was taken from Cutting 2002 is ‘If I’d known I was gonna live this long, I’d have taken better care of myself.’ p. 17 e. Declarations This type of speech act has force to “change the world via their utterances” Yule, 1996, p. 53. It means, the speaker has the authority to make something happen only by uttering utterances. Searle 1976 formulates short sentences rather than verbs to describe utterances that belong to declaration type. The sentences are ‘I resign’, ‘you’re fired’, and ‘war is hereby declared’ Searle, 1976. PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

2. Mood Types

Mood types or main clause types in English consist of four moods: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamative Collins Hollo, 2009, p. 110. Halliday 2004 differentiates mood types into two: indicative declarative and interrogative and imperative mood p. 134. Since there are many differences in categorizing mood types from different theories, this research only used three mood types: declarative, interrogative, imperative. Nevertheless, the focus of mood types is the same: to distinguish specific “interpersonal functions within the clause” Fontaine, 2013, p. 134. Thompson 2004 differentiates declarative as two types of clauses: exclamative and non-exclamative clauses as cited in Fontaine, 2013, p. 135. An exclamative clause is a regular declarative such as ‘she is a pretty girl’. The non- exclamative clause is a clause where a complement precedes a subject and a finite of a clause Fontaine, 2013, p. 135. Compared to exclamative clause, the example of non- exclamative clause become ‘what a pretty girl she is’. Usually, a non- exclamative clause is ellipsed so the example becomes ‘what a pretty girl’. Ac cording to Nuyts and Auwera 2016, declarative mood is “often taken to represent assertive speech act” p. 69. This is because an utterance which contains declarative mood indicates “the speaker’s commitment to the truth, as well as with evidentials, which indicate how speakers have obtain information needed for making assertion” Nuyts and Auwera, 2016, p. 69. However, declarative mood is not merely related to assertion or representative. Four examples of four speech act types which use declarative mood are mentioned as follow: a commissive: I will never again forget your birthday; b directive: you know what you have to do; c expressive: I am sorry; d declaration: You are guilty. To formulate interrogative mood, the subject and the finite in declarative mood are inverted. However, inverting a subject and a finite is not the only condition to determine a clause or an utterance belongs to interrogative mood. Wh- question and yesno question see figure 2.1 are the other conditions to categorize a clause or an utterance into interrogative mood. Similar with declarative mood, interrogative mood does not only represent an act of asking question. This mood can be included into other speech act types. Imperative mood is rather different from the other two moods above. Basically, a clause which contains imperative mood is also formed from a subject and a finite. However, most of the time, the subject is omitted. Fontaine 2013 suggests to “check the effects of adding an overt subject and finite element and comparing this with the resultant structures in both positive and negative polarity” p. 136. Imperative mood also mainly expresses directive acts such as commanding, ordering, and prohibiting. However, it may convey other types of speech acts beside directive type such as asserting in representative, promising in commissives, greeting in expressive, and declaring a war in declarations. In addition, Condoravdi and Lauer 2012 add that imperative can express other kinds of illocutionary acts. They categorized them into four categories: directives, wish-type uses, permissions and invitations, and disinterested advice. To depict a clear connection between