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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
This chapter contains a discussion on related literature. This chapter is divided into two parts, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework.
In the theoretical description the researcher presents some theories related to this study. A theoretical description is important because it provides some theories
which can be used as the basis to conduct study. The theoretical framework discusses the relation among the theories stated
before as the basis of designing a set of instructional material using video for tenth grade student of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu.
A. Theoretical description
In this part there will be explanation in several theories which support this study. All of them will be described in greater length in order to provide a
complete base of this study. The explanation will be divided as follows so that the explanation will be well organized.
1. Instructional design model
There are a lot of Instructional design models to be employed when developing material. In this study the writer refers to instructional design model
offered by Kemp. He offers a model of instructional design which is called Kemp’s model. In this model, the design results as the process of systematic
planning that establishes a way to examine instructional problems and needs, set
10 of procedure for solving them, and then evaluates the result Kemp, 1977:7. It
will be adopted and modified to design the material to enhance speaking skill using video for tenth grade student of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu.
Kemp’s model can be used in all education level from elementary school up to college. Another benefit of this model is that it can be implemented in the
instructional unit for a single subject. According to Kemp, when the designers plan to design courses, they must
be able to answer three questions, which are considered the essential elements of instructional technology Kemp, 1977:8. Those questions are:
1. What must be learned?
2. What procedures and resources will work best for the learners?
3. How we evaluate the learning result?
There are eight elements in designing the program development in Kemp’s model 1977:8-9. The eight elements are independent but they can be rearranged
depending on the need. a.
Considering goals, topics, and general purposes for teaching each topic. First, instructional design planning should be started with the recognition
of the broad goals of the school system or institution. After establishing the goals, the major topics should be listed within the content area. Finally, the precise
general purposes should be stated to derive objectives that will serve as specific learning outcomes.
11 b.
Identifying the important characteristic of the learners The designer should recognize and respect the students as individual
learners and assist them in pursuing learning at their own pace, on their own schedule, and their own learning experiences and materials. To serve that, the
designer should obtain information about the learners’ capabilities, needs, and interests. Then the designer should decide the most appropriate information for
the design. The designer must know the students’ characteristics. The first is academic
factor. It consists of the number of students and academic background, grade-
point average and level of intelligence, study habits and learners’ motivation for studying the subject, expectations of the course, vocational and cultural
aspirations. The second is social factor. It consists of age and maturity, attention span, special talent, physical and emotional handicaps, relation among students,
socioeconomic situation. Finally, designers must create appropriate learning conditions and learning style.
c. Specifying the learning objectives
Since learning requires active effort by the learners, all objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best promote learning. Objectives of learning
can be grouped into three major categories. First is cognitive domain. It includes objectives concerning knowledge, or information. The second is psychomotor
domain . It treats the skills requiring use and coordination of skeletal muscles and
in physical activities of performing, manipulating, and construction. The third is
12 affective domain
. It involves objectives concerning attitudes appreciations, values, and all emotions.
d. Listing the subject content that supports each objective
Subject content in the content of instructional design comprises the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge, skills, and attitudinal factors
of any topic. Then task analysis should be made to make sure all elements of a procedure are considered in the planning and will therefore be treated properly
during instruction. e.
Developing pre-assessment There are two kinds of pre-assessment that should be conducted. They are
prerequisite testing and pre-testing. Prerequisite testing is conducted to obtain the information about the learners’ background knowledge toward the topic.
Meanwhile, pre-testing is conducted to find out how far the students achieve the objectives.
f. Selecting teaching-learning activities and resources
The designer should use the appropriate teaching methods and techniques in order that the objectives will be achieved in time. This selection must be based
on consideration to determine the most efficient and effective methods along with the best way to provide the learning experience.
g. Specifying support services
The designer should prepare any support services which are likely to help in designing materials including funds, facilities, equipment, and personnel whose
time must be scheduled for participation in the instructional plan.
13 h.
Evaluating the students’ learning The last step is evaluating the learners’ knowledge whether the learning
objectives had been achieved or not. As mentioned in the third part, specifying the objectives involving three domains such as: cognitive, psychomotor and affective
domain. The evaluation that is planned should indicate the objectives from each domain. Furthermore the designer will do some revision and re-evaluation to any
stages which need improvement. Kemps explain that developing an instructional system is a flexible
process. There is interdependence among the eight elements; decisions relating to one may affect others. Each step of development has a direct relation with an
activity called revision. The designers are free to start whichever element to start with and then move back and forth to the other steps Kemp, 1977:9.
Figure 1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model Kemp, 1977:9
Goals, topics
,
general purposes
Pre - assessment
Learning Objectives
Supporting Services
Learners’ characteristics
Subject Content
Learning activities,
resources
Evaluation
Revision
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2. Educational Research and Development