Instructional design model Theoretical description

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter contains a discussion on related literature. This chapter is divided into two parts, namely theoretical description and theoretical framework. In the theoretical description the researcher presents some theories related to this study. A theoretical description is important because it provides some theories which can be used as the basis to conduct study. The theoretical framework discusses the relation among the theories stated before as the basis of designing a set of instructional material using video for tenth grade student of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu.

A. Theoretical description

In this part there will be explanation in several theories which support this study. All of them will be described in greater length in order to provide a complete base of this study. The explanation will be divided as follows so that the explanation will be well organized.

1. Instructional design model

There are a lot of Instructional design models to be employed when developing material. In this study the writer refers to instructional design model offered by Kemp. He offers a model of instructional design which is called Kemp’s model. In this model, the design results as the process of systematic planning that establishes a way to examine instructional problems and needs, set 10 of procedure for solving them, and then evaluates the result Kemp, 1977:7. It will be adopted and modified to design the material to enhance speaking skill using video for tenth grade student of SMA Pangudi Luhur Sedayu. Kemp’s model can be used in all education level from elementary school up to college. Another benefit of this model is that it can be implemented in the instructional unit for a single subject. According to Kemp, when the designers plan to design courses, they must be able to answer three questions, which are considered the essential elements of instructional technology Kemp, 1977:8. Those questions are: 1. What must be learned? 2. What procedures and resources will work best for the learners? 3. How we evaluate the learning result? There are eight elements in designing the program development in Kemp’s model 1977:8-9. The eight elements are independent but they can be rearranged depending on the need. a. Considering goals, topics, and general purposes for teaching each topic. First, instructional design planning should be started with the recognition of the broad goals of the school system or institution. After establishing the goals, the major topics should be listed within the content area. Finally, the precise general purposes should be stated to derive objectives that will serve as specific learning outcomes. 11 b. Identifying the important characteristic of the learners The designer should recognize and respect the students as individual learners and assist them in pursuing learning at their own pace, on their own schedule, and their own learning experiences and materials. To serve that, the designer should obtain information about the learners’ capabilities, needs, and interests. Then the designer should decide the most appropriate information for the design. The designer must know the students’ characteristics. The first is academic factor. It consists of the number of students and academic background, grade- point average and level of intelligence, study habits and learners’ motivation for studying the subject, expectations of the course, vocational and cultural aspirations. The second is social factor. It consists of age and maturity, attention span, special talent, physical and emotional handicaps, relation among students, socioeconomic situation. Finally, designers must create appropriate learning conditions and learning style. c. Specifying the learning objectives Since learning requires active effort by the learners, all objectives must be stated in terms of activities that will best promote learning. Objectives of learning can be grouped into three major categories. First is cognitive domain. It includes objectives concerning knowledge, or information. The second is psychomotor domain . It treats the skills requiring use and coordination of skeletal muscles and in physical activities of performing, manipulating, and construction. The third is 12 affective domain . It involves objectives concerning attitudes appreciations, values, and all emotions. d. Listing the subject content that supports each objective Subject content in the content of instructional design comprises the selection and organizing of the specific knowledge, skills, and attitudinal factors of any topic. Then task analysis should be made to make sure all elements of a procedure are considered in the planning and will therefore be treated properly during instruction. e. Developing pre-assessment There are two kinds of pre-assessment that should be conducted. They are prerequisite testing and pre-testing. Prerequisite testing is conducted to obtain the information about the learners’ background knowledge toward the topic. Meanwhile, pre-testing is conducted to find out how far the students achieve the objectives. f. Selecting teaching-learning activities and resources The designer should use the appropriate teaching methods and techniques in order that the objectives will be achieved in time. This selection must be based on consideration to determine the most efficient and effective methods along with the best way to provide the learning experience. g. Specifying support services The designer should prepare any support services which are likely to help in designing materials including funds, facilities, equipment, and personnel whose time must be scheduled for participation in the instructional plan. 13 h. Evaluating the students’ learning The last step is evaluating the learners’ knowledge whether the learning objectives had been achieved or not. As mentioned in the third part, specifying the objectives involving three domains such as: cognitive, psychomotor and affective domain. The evaluation that is planned should indicate the objectives from each domain. Furthermore the designer will do some revision and re-evaluation to any stages which need improvement. Kemps explain that developing an instructional system is a flexible process. There is interdependence among the eight elements; decisions relating to one may affect others. Each step of development has a direct relation with an activity called revision. The designers are free to start whichever element to start with and then move back and forth to the other steps Kemp, 1977:9. Figure 1. Kemp’s Instructional Design Model Kemp, 1977:9 Goals, topics , general purposes Pre - assessment Learning Objectives Supporting Services Learners’ characteristics Subject Content Learning activities, resources Evaluation Revision 14

2. Educational Research and Development