The Perfect Tenses
The form of perfect tense is have had will have + Past participle. The Perfect Tenses give the idea that something happens before another time or event.
Table 5. The Perfect Tenses
Tense Example
Present Perfect I have already eaten.
Past Perfect I had already eaten when they
arrived. Future Perfect
I will already have eaten when they arrived.
Azar, Betty S. and Stacy A. Hagen, 2009: 4
The Perfect Progressive Tenses
The form of perfect progressive tense is have had will have + been + -ing. The Perfect Progressive tenses give the idea that one event is in progress immediately
before, up to, until another time and event. The tenses are used to show the duration of something.
Table 6. The Perfect Progressive Tenses
Tense Example
Present Perfect Progressive I have been studying for two
hours. Past Perfect Progressive
I had been studying for two hours before my friend came.
Future Perfect Progressive I will have been studying for two
hours by the time you arrive. Azar, Betty S. and Stacy A. Hagen, 2009: 5
Conditional Sentence Table 7. Conditional Sentence
Situation If-clause
Result clause Examples
True in
the Present Future
Simple present
Will + simple
form
If I have enough time, I watch
TV every evening. Untrue
in the
Present Future Simple past
Would + simple form
If I had enough time, I would watch
TV now or later on. Untrue in the past
Past perfect Would have +
past participle If I hadhad enough time, I
would have watched
TV yesterday.
Azar, Betty S. and Stacy A. Hagen, 2009: 416
iv. Adverb
Adverbs of manner say how something happens or is done. For example: quickly, happily, terribly, fast, badly, well. These adverbs should not be confused
with adjectives happy, quick, etc. Adverb is used, not adjectives, to modify verbs. Swan, 1981: 16
b. Agreement between subject and predicate
Curme states that the predicate agrees- wherever the form will permit- with the subject in number, person, gender, and case. In number, if the subject is singular,
the verb is also singular. If the subject is plural, or if there are several subjects, the verb is plural. Curme, 1966: 115
If the subject in a sentence is singular, the verb is also singular. The verb that follows an anticipatory it is always singular. The verb is also singular when the
subject takes regular form of each one, everybody, everyone, either, and no one. If the
subject of a sentence is the name of a book, drama, or newspaper, the verb is singular. Curme, 1966: 115-118
If the subject is plural, or of there are many subjects, the verb is also plural. In some cases, nouns that are plural in form are singular in meaning. For example are
gallows, news, and mumps. They take a singular verb in the English usage. The verb is also plural when the there are two subjects and connected by conjunction and.
Curme, 1966: 116-117
The use of suffix –s or –es
A suffix –s or –es is given to a simple present verb when the subject is a singular noun such as Mary, my father, the machine or third person singular
pronoun she, he, it. In other sides, if a suffix –s or –es is not given, the subject must be a plural noun such as the students work. Azar, Betty S. and Stacy A. Hagen,
2009: 85
c. Emphatic tags
Based on Bernice Rafferty, it is stated that emphatic tag is used in Northern Irish. For example is in this statement, I was a back-seat passenger in a car accident,
so I was and there’s not really anything else for it, so there is . So is used and it is
followed by a verb phrase as an emphatic tag. Emphatic tag is a construction that reinforces the information already provided in the main body of the previous
statement.
Tags used to change statements into questions, such as isn’t it and can’t you. The use of tags with so is typical of speech in Northern Ireland, while in the north of
England one frequently hears constructions with an inverted verb phrase, such as she’s a good dancer, is Katy
or simply an emphatic pronoun tagged onto the end of a statement, such as I play football, me. http:www.bl.uklearninglanglitsoundstext-
onlynilissummon, October 27, 2014
d. No and None
No is used before a singular or plural noun. For example; we’ve got no plans for the summer. In other side, none of is used before a determiner e.g. the, my, this
and also before pronoun. For example: none of the keys would open the door. Swan, 1981: 370
e. Possessive’s
Definite articles are usually dropped when possessives are used. For example:
the car that is John’s= John’s car NOT the John’s car or John’s the car But a
possessive word may have its own article. For example: the car that is the boss’s = the boss’s car.
When a noun with aan or thisthat are wanted to be used, ‘of mine’ construction is
used. For example: she’s a cousin of John’s NOT …. A John’s cousin. Swan,
1981: 433
f. Article
Article aan is used with singular countable nouns since the original meaning of aan is ‘one’. Before plural and uncountable nouns, someany or no article are
normally used. For example: we met some nice French girls on holiday. NOT …. A nice French girls
…. Swan, 1981: 60
The article a changes to an if it comes before a vowel. For example: a rabbit, a
lemon, an elephant, and an orange. The choice between a and an depends on
pronunciation, not spelling. An article an is used before a vowel sound, even if it
written as a consonant. For example: an hour. Swan, 1981: 61 g.
There
The uses of there are as an adverb of place and as an introductory subject. When there is used as an adverb of place, there has a meaning of ‘in that place’. For
example: what’s that green thing over there? When there is used as an introductory subject, there is placed in the beginning of sentences. For example: there’s a book
under the piano. Swan, 1981: 591
h. Sentence
A sentence can be classified into its function. The functions are declarative, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. A declarative sentence contains
statement. It uses a period in the end of sentence. An imperative sentence asks a question. It uses a question mark in the end of sentence. An exclamatory sentence
shows strong feeling. It uses an exclamation point. Brewton, John E. et al, 1962: 250
A sentence also can be classified based on its number and kinds of clauses. A clause is a group of some words that has a subject and predicate. Some clauses can be
used alone as complete sentence, whereas others are used as a part of sentence. There are two kinds of clauses such as independent or principal clause and dependent or
subordinate clause. Brewton, John E. et al, 1962: 250 An independent clause is a clause that shows a complete thought and can
stand alone as a sentence whereas a dependent clause is a clause that depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning. Brewton, John E. et al, 1962: 251
A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause. A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clause. The independent clauses in a
compound sentence can be linked by and, but, or, or nor preceded by a comma. A complex sentence is made up of one independent clause and one or more dependent
clause. A compound-complex sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Brewton, John E. et al, 1962: 251
i. Parallel structure
In owl.english.purdue.edu, parallel structure uses the same pattern of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. It happens at the
word, phrase, or clause level. To join parallel structures, the coordinating conjunction
