The seventh way is direct comment. The author describes or comments about the character directly 170.
The eighth way is thoughts. The author gives the readers direct knowledge of what a character is thinking about. It is very important for the readers to know
the thought of the character in the novel because they understand the motives behind the actions of the character 171.
The last way is mannerism. The author describes mannerisms and habits of the character in the novel. The author reveals the habits or the mannerism of the
character positively or negatively 173. Through some definitions above, characterization in this study is a process
to describe person in the story.
2.1.4 The Theory of Psychology
I need the psychological theory to analyze the motivations of Yukiko Makioka’s family in finding a husband for Yukiko Makioka, because this theory
is suitable for this study. There is one theory that is used in this study. That is theory of motivation. This theory is related with the motivations of Yukiko
Makioka’s family in finding a husband for her.
2.1.5 Theory of Motivation 2.1.5.1 Definition of Motivation
Every individual must have goals that want to be reached in his or her life. Those goals stimulate individuals to do certain thing and behave in a certain way.
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Franken in states “motivation theorists start with the assumption that, for every behavior, there is a cause” 3. Murray says motivations theorists are concerned
with the origins or causes of action. Therefore, they are also interested in why people do any number of things. Early motivation theorists also hypothesized that
needs cause action. Needs gives people a push or nudge in a certain direction 27. Worchel and Shebilske state “psychologists have used the term motive to describe
the condition that energizes and directs the behavior of organisms.” Therefore, motivation is defined as a reason why an organism acts in a certain way in certain
time caused by some energy from the body which devices temporarily translate the capabilities into action 373. Some energy from the body is called desires.
According to Huffman, Vernoy and Vernoy, motivation “refers to factors within an individual, such as needs, desires, and interests that activate, maintain,
and direct behavior toward a goal”. This indicates that the way a person did some behaviors is guided by some purpose and that it leads to a goal or the satisfaction
of some need 392. Murray says motivation distinguished from the other factors that also
influence behavior, such as the past experience of a person, the physical capabilities, and the environmental situation in which a person finds himself 7.
Abram also says that the ground in the characters’ temperament, desires, and moral nature for their speech and actions are called their motivation 23.
Robert C. Beck says “motivation is broadly concerned with the contemporary determinants of choice direction, persistence, and vigor of goal-
directed behavior” 24. Therefore, when an organism has one or more behaviors
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are equally possible and one of the behaviors is chosen, the organism persists in that behavior with more or less vigor until a goal becomes more dominant 24.
Benjamin B. Lahey states motivation is “the internal state or condition that activates and gives direction to our thoughts, feelings, and actions” 360
According to Herbert L. Petri, motivation is “the concept we use when we describe the forces acting on or within an organism to initiate and direct behavior”
4. The concept of motivation is often used to indicate the direction of behavior. From the definitions of motivation above, motivation in this study is
factors that can stimulate, maintain, and direct behavior on someone thoughts, feelings, and behaves to reach a goal. The factors that influence behavior are
needs, desires, and interests, past experiences, physical capabilities and the environmental situation. The other factors that influence behavior are past
experiences, physical capabilities, and the environmental situation.
2.1.5.2 Types of Motivation
To analyze the motivations of Yukiko Makioka’s family in finding a husband for Yukiko deeper, we must also know about what the types of
motivation are.
2.1.5.2.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
According to Huffman, Vernoy, and Vernoy, two forms of motivation that affect achievement are intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic
motivation is “the desire to perform an act for its own sake; motivation is derived
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from the satisfaction arising out of the behavior” 401. Extrinsic motivation is “the desire to perform an act because of external rewards or avoidance
punishment” 401. Herbert L.Petri defines intrinsic motivation as “the value or pleasure
associated with an activity as opposed to the goal toward which the activity is directed” 315. People can be motivated to do a task because their behavior itself
is rewarding, not because an external reward. Extrinsic motivation emphasizes “the external goals toward which the activity is directed” 315. People motivate
to do something because they want to get an external reward. Herbert L. Petri divides rewards into three types. They are extrinsic, intrinsic, and affective.
Extrinsic reward consists of “some external object or situation that satisfies some expectation of the individual” 319. Intrinsic reward is “different, involving the
feeling of competence one obtains when one successfully complete a task” 319. Affective reward involves “the positive emotional experience that one gains when
a goal is reached” 319. According to Worchel and Shebilske, intrinsic motivation is “motivated
behavior that derives from the enjoyment of performing the task rather than from an expected reward” 409. Intrinsic rewards are intellectual challenge or pride
make us fell that we are in control 408. Extrinsic motivation is “motivated behavior that results from external factors, such as a promotion, or other type of
reward” 409. This reward can control our behavior. Therefore, intrinsic motivation in this study is enjoyment or satisfaction to
do something and not because external rewards. It is because the successful to do
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something is the reward. While extrinsic motivation is the motivation is from external factors a promotion or other type of reward of individuals. The extrinsic
reward consists of some external object or situation that satisfies some expectation of the individual and the intrinsic reward involves the feeling of competence one
obtains when one successfully complete a task.
2.1.5.2.2 Human Motives
According to David McClelland, there are four human motives. They are achievement motive, power motive, affiliative motive, and avoidance motive
224. Worchel and Shebilske state achievement motive is “motive to do things as rapidly andor as well as possible” 406. McClelland in Robert A. Baron’s
defines power motive is “the motive is in charge, to have status and prestige, and influence others” 394. Houston in Benjamin B. Lahey’s defines affiliative
motive is “the need to be with other people and to have personal relationships” 368. Avoidance motive is “motives as efforts to avoid discomfort and to reduce
strong stimulation, whether caused by hunger, thirst, pain, electric shock, conflict, or frustration” 374. This study only discuss about achievement motive since this
motive is appropriate. According to Henry Murray in Worchel and Shebilske’s, people are driven
by the motive to do things as well as possible. People who have high achievement motive are “driven by the general desire to set and achieve high standards of
excellent” 406. Henry Murray in Franken’s book defines achievement motivation is “the need to achieve as a desire or tendency to overcome obstacle, to
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exercise power, to strive to do something difficult as well as and as quickly as possible” 364.
Atkinson and Birch say achievement motivation identifies two dimensions 406. They are hope for success and fear of failure. People who have
the highest need of achievement are people who have a high hope for success and a low fear of failure. People who have a high hope for success seek out tasks that
will challenge their abilities. In contrast, people who are dominated by fear of failure attract to simple goals. Family characteristics and lifestyle also influence
the development of achievement motive 406-407. John Jung states “achievement comes from social factors such as prestige,
and the recognition and admiration of other people” 135. Admiration comes from people who themselves value to achieve equal feats. In addition, social
factors of achievement are also money and other material benefits. Intrinsic reward in achievement motivation is the pride of accomplishment. The successful
of achievements are also followed by extrinsic rewards such as social approval or material rewards 136.
Therefore achievement motivation in this study is the need to achieve a desire or tendency to overcome obstacle, to exercise power, to strive to do
something difficult as well as and as quickly as possible. The successful of achieving goals is also influenced by intrinsic reward pride and extrinsic reward
admiration, prestige, and material benefits.
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2.1.5.2.3 Approach and Avoidant Motivation Franken states motivation theorists have the assumption that every
behavior, there is a cause. Their goal is to identify those causes 3. According to Higgins 3-4, psychologists distinguish between approach causes and avoidant
causes. In approach behavior, people do things because of something they want, desire, or need. This is often conceptualized in terms of a specific goal object. For
example, someone wants to eat because they are hungry. While in avoidant behavior, people do things to avoid something. Anxiety may not immediately
elicit a specific goal object. People who are anxious are often unable to specify the source. Avoidant causes tend to be very compelling. People are not only aversive
or noxious but they are also difficult to ignore. For example, someone is afraid of a snake, feel a strong and immediate need to distance from that goal object.
Heshe is often unable to specify the source of hisher anxiety and heshe attempts to find a safe place.
Watson and Clark in Franken’s say every individual has different anxiety. He or she is more anxious from birth. As a result, he or she is likely to engage in
avoidant behaviors. Even thinking of certain activities is enough to make them anxious. For example, someone avoids eating certain foods because he or she
fears to get sick 4. Zuckerman in Franken’s says “extraverts positive emotionally and
sensation seekers spend more time in approach behaviors. They see the world as a source of opportunities and excitement. For example, people climb a high
mountain or hang gliding or traveling the world” 4. Zuckerman also says the
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distinction between approach and avoidant motivation. The important determinant of behavior is feelings. Feelings are often caused by chemical reactions in our
body or brain 21. LeDoux in Franken’s states theorists have suggested that people should
monitor their feelings. Therefore, they can guide their actions because their feelings are more closely linked to their survival than is rational thought 21.
Higgins in Franken’s states the different of approach and avoidant motivation. Higgins says “the need to understand the role of self-focus in helping
humans to achieve goals approach motivation and to keep themselves safe and out of harms way avoidant motivation” 8.
Elliot and Covington state “motivation differs as a function of valence” 73. In approach motivation, “behavior is instigated or directed by a
positivedesirable event or possibility” 73. Avoidant motivation is “behavior that is instigated or directed by a negativeundesirable event or possibility” 74.
Therefore, approach motivation in this study is motivation that people do things because of their want, desire, and need. Avoidant motivation is motivation
that makes people to avoid something and keep themselves safe and out of harms way.
2.1.6 Reviews on Literature Marriage Motivation in Japan
In the article “Marriage in Japan and in the West”, Maciamo the writer says about the difference between Japanese marriage and Westerners from
Europe to America or Australia marriage. Westerner marriage is based on love.
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Marriage is the legal union of a man and a woman who promise to love each other forever. Therefore, marriage is usually a proof of love and commitment for life. If
love disappears, people tend to divorce easily. Even in modern laws, people can get children outside marriage. Therefore, if people only want children, marriage is
not even necessary 1. While, in Japan marriage with or without love is not very important. In the past, lots of marriage are still arranged miai and some
Japanese think that it is better than love marriage because loveless arranged marriage rarely end up in divorce as the purpose is to raise children and care about
the household “Getting Married in Japan”, 1. In modern Japan, lots of marriages are referred to as “love marriages”, the rest are the more traditional still arranged
marriages miai. Because this study discusses about the motivations of Yukiko Makioka’s
family in finding a husband for Yukiko, I want to discuss about the history of marriage in Japan. Over the past several centuries until now, Japan had several
marriage periods “Marriage and the Family in Japan: History of Marriage and Arranged Marriages in Japan”. They were Heian Period 794-1185, Muromachi
Period in the 13
th
and 14
th
centuries, Feudal Period, Tokugawa Period 1603- 1867, during Meiji Period 1890-1911, Latter Half of the Meiji Period to the
Taish ō Period 1890-1926, World War II Period, and Modern-Day Japan Period
Post-WWII. In Heian Period 794-1185 the central was the selection of mates to create
children, not the marriage itself. Men could have more than one mate. They also were not bound at any time to a single mate in monogamous marriage. Women
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were insignificant and always became subservient to males. In this period, marriages were endogamous. Endogamous was characteristic of all levels of
Heian society. On all levels, marriages to cousins were frequent “Marriage and the Family in Japan: History of Marriage and Arranged Marriages in Japan”, 3.
In Muromachi Period in the 13
th
and 14
th
centuries, the rise of “bushi” warriors made the most significant change. The change from the age of
aristocracy to the age of the shoguns military governors led to a change from the old practice of “muko-iri” to the new practice of “yome-iri”. “Muko-iri” was the
groom joining the bride’s family. While “yome-iri” was the bride would join the groom’s family upon the death of a parent or birth of a child. In this period,
Japanese viewed marriage as more of a link between two families as opposed to a joining of two individuals. It was as an opportunity for political, economic, and
social alliances that promoted the interests of families rather than a romantic between two individuals. In Muromachi Period, polygynous marriage became less
common. Men began to have concubines for two main reasons. They were as a symbol of status and success. In this period, Japan was also predominantly a
matriarchal society, particularly in lower-class and rural areas. Women had freedom in the areas of love and marriage “Marriage and the Family in Japan:
History of Marriage and Arranged Marriages in Japan”, 3-4. In Feudal Period approx. 9
th
century, both aristocracy and samurai class viewed marriage as an opportunity for political, economic, and social alliances
that promoted the interests of families. Under the feudal system, marriages were often used as political and diplomatic approaches to maintain peace and unity
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among feudal lords. In this period, Japanese had known about “miai”. Miai is “the practice of arranged marriages.” A matchmaker who arranged marriages on behalf
of both families called “nakado”. Men and women could not choose their partners in marriage “Marriage and the Family in Japan: History of Marriage and
Arranged Marriages in Japan”, 4. In Tokugawa Period 1603-1867, there were two forms of marriage. They
were the arranged marriage and love marriage. There were also social classes. They were samurai at the top, peasants, artisans, and merchants. The arranged
marriages were the characteristic mainly of samurai warrior class. While commoners married for love. The marriage system just became subject to many
rules and regulations to preserve the “status quo”. A law was instituted requiring governmental registries to keep track of the status of every household. Household
planning marriage had to report such plans, marriages had to be cleared by officially, and a nakado matchmaker was required to confirm that the families
were indeed of equal rank and class “Marriage and the Family in Japan: History of Marriage and Arranged Marriages in Japan”, 4-5.
During Meiji Period 1890-1911 began a period of modernization in Japan. Miai spread through all classes of Japanese society. Marriage was most
frequently arranged by parents through the offices of the nakado matchmaker. The arranged marriage or miai was to ensure the continuation of the family and its
assets and lineage. It was still imperative that the prospective partner come from a family of compatible status and family background. In this period, the couple was
brought formally by the nakado matchmaker to meet before their wedding day
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“Marriage and the Family in Japan: History of Marriage and Arranged Marriages in Japan”, 5.
In Latter Half of the Meiji Period to the Taish ō Period 1890-1926 did not
many significant changes took place that involved marriage or the family. During Taisho Period 1912-1926, the number of illegitimate births drooped
significantly, as well as unplanned pregnancies that directly led to marriage. According to Murstein, love marriages were quite uncommon up until World War
II “Marriage and the Family in Japan: History of Marriage and Arranged Marriages in Japan”, 5-6.
In World War II Period, there were many aspects of Japanese life for years changed dramatically. Japanese Constitution was rewritten. The Constitution or at
least the part of it that deals with marriage: “Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes, and it
shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis. With regard to choice of spouse, property
rights, inheritance, choice of domicile, divorce and other matters pertaining to marriage and the family, laws shall be enacted from the
standpoint of individual dignity and the essential equality of the sexes” “Marriage and the Family in Japan: History of Marriage and Arranged
Marriages in Japan”, 6. In Modern-Day Japan Period Post-WWII, the postwar Constitution shape
today’s society in Japan. Some of the biggest changes came from new laws included the total abolishment of the family system, including men as the head of
the family and women were given more equality, including in having more legal divorce their husband. Prior of amendments to the Japanese Constitution was
“women usually had to be accepted by the bridegroom and his family, and in the
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extended family their status was very low until the mother-in-law passed away. Today, young women can count on more equal treatment” 6.
Nowadays, Japanese modern system of marriages has adjusted to pressure from the Western custom of love marriages. In the past, Japanese marriages were
arranged by their parents. From the mid-1960s, love matches replaced arranged marriages as a social norm, and dating became new fashion among young men
and women to look for a compatible partner. The majority of marriages today are love marriages “Marriage and the Family in Japan: History of Marriage and
Arranged Marriages in Japan”, 6-7. Therefore miai arranged marriage seems to be falling rapidly out of use.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
In this part, I explain the theories that are used to answer the problems of this study. It is important for me because it can be the guidance to analyze the
novel. The theories involve theory of critical approaches, theory of character, theory of characterization, theory of psychology, theory of motivation, and
reviews on literature marriage motivation in Japan. First, I use theory of critical approaches to select the suitable approach to
analyze the novel. I choose psychological approach because this study focuses on the psychological aspects of the character. Second, I use the theory of character
and theory of characterization to analyze Yukiko Makioka’s character. Third, I use the theory of motivation. The theory of motivations is used to find out the
motivations of Yukiko Makioka’s family in finding a husband for Yukiko. I
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