1998 by LP3M, which were among others, forming community groups, offering trainings for community members, raising awareness on marine conservation,
developing community mariculture project. Three community groups of conservation, women, and credit revolving institution were formed in 1995.
Later, a Makassar-based NGO named Yasindo arrived in 1995 and assisted the presence of teaching assistants for the local elementary school. It
then facilitated the community conservation group, developed mariculture project, and offered scholarship to students.
Between 2000 and 2002, a Kapoposang Care Consortium KCC consisting of two Makassar-based NGOs namely YKL and LEMSA, was established. The
program was funded by the Global Environment Facility – Small Grants Program UNDP. The program was aimed at promoting co-management of the marine
resources based on conservation principles. The objectives were twofold, namely to promote the autonomy of local residents to manage the marine resources
founded on conservation principles, and to promote a policy which is integrated, just and based on community KCC 2003. The activities offered by this program
were such as raising awareness on marine conservation, developing community mariculture project, improving group management and supporting community-
based policy development.
6.4 Building Social Capital for Collective Action
After around a decade of the arrival of external assistance in these islands, the community’s perception on the effect of external assistance is observable.
Most respondents 95 percent stated that the external assistance had a positive effect. Local people are generally welcome to the arrival of external assistance,
while it occasionally assisted physical development in the island. There are many ways in which the external assistance have affect, among others, are the
influence on resource improvement and the influence on building social capital. The resource improvement after the intervention of external assistance is
not observable by local fishers. Most respondent answered that there is no change on the condition of fish and coral reef Figure 24. The next high
response is that they are worse, and only a few answered that they are better. This perception conforms to the wide experience that it is extremely problematic
to recognize the condition of resources especially fish population and marine resources Schlager 1994: 252; Grafton 2005: 326, yet to determine whether
improvement has been observed due to the presence of external assistance. Even though a direct effect to resource improvement is not recognizable,
nevertheless, the external assistance have been promoting social capital investment in through fostering social relationships and networks in bonding,
bridging and linking social capital for coral reef management. To what extent networks and community and fishers capacity have been promoted, are
discussed in the following.
20 40
60 80
100
Fish condition Coral reefs
condition
Percentage of response Better
No change Worse
Figure 24 Perceived benefits of external assistance on fish and coral reef condition. Total N = 102.
Building Bonding Social Capital
The awareness raising brought into by the external assistance have promoted public education by regular communication and regular gathering in a
community setting to island residents and fishers, in issues related with ecological conditions and processes of coastal environment including coral reefs.
It dealt with avoiding resource use that ecologically destructive to environment and coral reefs. Norms of reciprocity and trust can be developed through long-
term engagement Coleman 1990; Ostrom 1990; Putnam 1993. Further, communities and fishers had been invited to observe sustainable resource use
when they see infringements from these norms. This facilitation by the external assistance builds bonding social capital, that is associated with trust and
cooperation that encourage fishers to observe fishing rules or sustainable fishing practices Grafton 2005: 756.
Rajuni and Tarupa During Coremap program in Tarupa, Rajuni Kecil and Rajuni Besar, many
information gathering, trainings and meetings were held. The objective was to increase the knowledge of island residents about marine environment,
conservation norms, as well as valuable for economic improvement. It had initiated the involvement of the island fishers and residents to voluntarily monitor
and protect their surrounding marine are from destructive activities. Furthermore, the external assistance assigned one or two villagers in
each island as a community motivator, whose task is to motivate other community members to comply the sustainable resource use. It had also
facilitated the establishment of MCS monitoring, controlling and surveillance to prevent destructive fishing in Taka Bonerate MNP, which involved a couple of
reef watchers in each island to actively engage in the monitoring activities. The influence of community motivators and reef watchers to reduce the
number of blast or poison fishing carrying out by the resident fishers were mixed across islands. In general, local monitoring towards sustainable fishing practices,
influenced a little to the changing behavior of the blast or poison fishers. In Rajuni Kecil this monitoring influenced the increase carefulness of blast or poison fishers
in carrying out their practices. However, wide ignorance was perceived in Tarupa. It was due to among others, the opposition of the head of village on the
conservation program during the first two years of program’s initiation. Kapoposang
In Kapoposang, the activities of some NGOs working with the community included empowering the village representative body as well as organize holding
information gathering and trainings to the villagers and fishers KCC 2003. This has encouraged community members and resident fishers to observe sustainable
fishing practices. The resident fishers in Kapoposang are generally using hook and line or net, therefore are regularly disturbed by poison or blast fishing. They
have been increasingly prohibited and shoo away poison or blast fishers. Their actions have been increased after the public education from external assistance
was received. Nevertheless, poison and blast fishing have not been ceased KCC 2003; Jufri 2006.
Building Bridging Social Capital
The external assistance had facilitated building bridging social capital that is cross-cutting ties of social relationships, which can be found in relationships
from different ethnic groups. In fishery, a bridging social capital is important for technological improvements, generating regional cooperation across fishing
communities and in conflict resolution across competing fishing gears and interests Grafton 2005: 756. Bridging social capital can be promoted through
supporting opportunities for different communities and stakeholders to share knowledge and experiences, to learn from each other and make the best use of
the pooled knowledge in managing coastal fishery and marine environment. Learning from other communities’ experience and promoting and providing
medium for conflict resolution between resident and other fishers and communities are accounted for building bridging social capital.
Rajuni and Tarupa In Tarupa, Rajuni Kecil and Rajuni Besar, the external assistance promoted
cross visits of the representatives of the island community members to other fishery-dependent communities. The visits were intended to learn from other
communities on topics such as promoting and organizing mariculture and other income generating activities, as well as on issues related with protecting
managing coral reefs and marine environment. In addition, field facilitators often assisted resident and external fishers in promoting means to discuss and resolve
conflicts of competing gears and interests among them. Kapoposang
The NGOs that assisted Kapoposang fishers and villagers in promoting sustainable fishing practices, often facilitated conflict resolution to resolve
increasing conflicts between traditional fishers and blast or poison fishers originating from the neighboring islands or other parts of the region.
Building Linking Social Capital
In addition to the ability of resource users or fishers to craft rules and institution in governing resource use, the access to linking social capital is
demonstrably central to well-being Narayan 1999, as well as to effectively enforce resource use rules Wilson 1982 in Schlager 1994. An important source
of linking social capital is local leaders and intermediaries, who are able to facilitate connections between communities and external development
assistance, including government programs Krishna 2002. Linking social capital refers to connections to people in positions of
authority, such as representatives of public i.e. government, police, political parties and private i.e. banks institutions Grootaert et al. 2003. In fishery,
“linking social is the relations between a fishery regulator or a government agency and a group of fishers” Grafton 2005: 761.
A linking relationship between island community and decision makers in government can be supplied by various actors that are field facilitators from NGO
or universities, as well as government officials themselves. The relationship promotes the capacity and confidence of local fishers and communities to craft
and enforce rules on resource use. Rajuni and Tarupa
In Tarupa, Rajuni Kecil and Rajuni Besar, the externally-input assistance of Coremap facilitated island communities to develop a community-based plan to
manage coral reefs. The plan went through different stages of planning process and covered rules on resource use. During the formation of the plan, the external
assistance promoted meetings and trainings that consisted of community representatives and local government, as well as government officers of Taka
Bonerate MNP, fishery office and law enforcement office LP3M 2002. Furthermore, conflict resolution on competing fishing gears between
resident and external fishers had been facilitated during the period of external assistance. The conflict resolution was involving NGO and the government
offices at the regency level such as People Representative Body DPRD and Fishery Office, as well as local community and patron. It settled rules on resource
use, in particular fishing gears hookah compressor, purse seine and vertical line that could not be utilized in Taka Bonerate MNP, and these gears could only be
use if its operation was partnership with local fishers LP3M 2002. Barrang Caddi
The external assistance assisted the island community in Barrang Caddi to monitor the law enforcement process towards the offender who broke the
community rule on marine sanctuary that had been established by the
community. The offender was captured by the local monitor, then arrested by the police and must follow a formal law enforcement process of sanctioning.
Kapoposang In Kapoposang, the Natural Resource Conservation Office BKSDA that
manages Kapoposang TMP occasionally visits the island and encourages local community to craft rules on resource use surrounding the island, including access
rules to external fishers to entering fishing grounds adjacent to Kapoposang. The rules may include check in and pay entrance fee to the local island Jufri 2006.
6.5 Cognitive Social Capital: Trust
