Instructional Design Model Theoretical Description

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CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

There are two topics that will be discussed in this chapter. The two topics are theoretical description and theoretical framework.

A. Theoretical Description

There are two topics of theoretical description that are discussed in this study. The first one is related to instructional design models that will be used in designing the instructional materials and the other one is related to the theory of ESP.

1. Instructional Design Model

There are many models of design available to be used by a designer. However, in designing English Instructional Materials for Mechanical Engineering students of Sanata Dharma University, the writer uses Kemp’s Instructional Design Model. According to Kemp 1977: 8, “the instructional design plan is designed to answer the three questions that may be considered the essential elements of instructional technology.” The questions are: a. What must be learned? objectives b. What procedures and resources will work best to reach the desired learning level? activities and resources c. How will we know when the required learning has taken place? evaluation 9 PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 10 Kemp’s model consists of eight parts, namely consider goals, list topics, and state the general purposes for teaching each topic; enumerate the important characteristics of the learners for whom the instruction is to be designed; specify the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavioral outcomes; list the subject content that supports each objective; select teaching learning activities and instructional resources that will treat the subject content so that the students will accomplish the objectives; coordinate such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan; and evaluate student’s learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and reevaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement Kemp, 1977: 9. The explanation of each part is as follows. a. Consider goals, list topics, and state the general purposes for teaching each topic. In this first step, a course designer has to formulate goals. After the goals are formulated, topics are selected and arranged. The designer has to arrange the topics started from the simple or concrete levels to the complex or abstracts level. Then, general purposes for the selected topics should also be determined. b. Enumerate the important characteristics of the learners for whom the instruction is to be designed. In this step, the course designer has to identify the learners’ characteristics. There are two factors that a designer should consider in identifying the PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 11 learners’ characteristics; they are academic factors, such as number of learners, academic background, level of intelligence, reading level, scores on standardized achievement, etc; and social factors, such as age, maturity, attention span, special talents, relations among students, and many others. A designer should still consider some other factor in identifying the learners’ characteristics. Other factors that are also important in planning an instruction are learning conditions and learning styles. Learning conditions are the conditions which influence the ability of the learners to concentrate, absorb, and retain information. Meanwhile, learning styles are the method that the learners use in learning. Different students have different method in learning, some students might feel it more effective to use visual approach, and other students might find it easy to learn by using verbal approach, the other students might enjoy learning through experiences. c. Specify the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of measurable student behavioral outcomes. In order to be able to measure learners’ behavioral outcomes, the next step that has to be done is to determine the learning objectives. There are three categories of objectives, namely; cognitive, psychomotor, and affective. In determining learning objectives, a course designer should start with an action verb that describes a specific activity by the learner. Then the action verb should be followed with the content reference that describes the subject being treated. Next, the designer should set the minimum acceptable PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 12 accomplishment. At last the course designer has to add with any criteria or conditions under which the learning must take place. d. List the subject content that supports each objective. There are two procedures that can be used in listing the subject content. Course designer can either list the subject content first to formulate the learning objectives, or stating the objectives first and then listing the subject content. The course designer can choose one of the procedures that is appropriate to the situation. Subject content in this instructional design plan refers to the selection and organization of the specific knowledge facts and information, skills step-by-step procedures, conditions, and requirements, and attitudinal factors of any topic. e. Develop pre-assessments to determine the student’s background and present level of knowledge about the topic. This step is done in order to plan learning activities for which the learners are prepared. It is also carried out to make sure that the learners do not waste their time to study things that they have known. There are two kinds of test that can be used in assessing the students, namely Prerequisite Test and Pretest. f. Select teaching learning activities and instructional resources that will treat the subject content so that the students will accomplish the objectives. In this step, teaching and learning activities should be chosen. They should include the content that is related to each objective. In addition, teaching method should be suitable with the students’ characteristics. Therefore, the PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI 13 course designer has to know the strengths and weaknesses of the methods in order to be able to select the appropriate method for the learners. g. Coordinate such support services as budget, personnel, facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional plan. In planning an instruction, support services should be considered carefully. Support services can include budget, facilities, equipment, time, schedule, and also coordination with other activities. This has to be done so that the education program can be done smoothly and successfully. h. Evaluate students’ learning in terms of their accomplishment of objectives, with a view to revising and reevaluating any phases of the plan that need improvement. Evaluation is carried out in order to seek out how far the learners have achieved the objectives and also the goals of the educational program itself. It is also intended to improve the instructional plan itself. Therefore, if the objectives and goals have not been achieved, designers can revise and improve the instructional plan. Kemp’s instructional design model is shown in Figure 2.1.

2. ESP