The Analysis of Reference in Bhagavad-Gita.

GOWINDA PRASADA 1201305082

ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

FACULTY OF ARTS

UDAYANA UNIVERSITY

and God (Krishna) for the greatest blesses for me. So, I am able to finish this study. By the best hope, faith, and love, You give me the best way to guide my days.

My great appreciation and gratitude are given to Yana Qomariana, S.S., M.Ling as the first supervisor and Ni Ketut Sri Rahayuni,S.S., M.Hum as the second supervisor, as both my first and second supervisor always support, guide, advise, and by the patience to help me during the process of study.

I also would like to give my sincere thanks to my beloved family Bapak I Ketut sutama, Ibu Ni Nyoman Suwini, Ni Putu Sri Radha Rani, and Gopala Prasada. Besides, thanks for my friends Agung Mahadipa, Kadek Putri Yamayanti who help and support in finishing this research. Besides, all friends cannot be mentioned who also always support, understand and encouragement me.

Denpasar, March 2016

“Bhagavad-gita”.

The data source of this study was taken from a Vedic religious book “Bhagavad-gita As It Is” by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. In collecting data, it was done by selecting randomly some texts of chapter one which the text 3 and text 11 were chosen. The research method of this study used qualitative research. The main theory used in this writing was the Theory of Cohesion proposed by Halliday and Hasan (1976). It explains about references as one aspect of cohesive relations. This writing was also supported by Theory of Discourse Analysis by David Nunan (1993) for supporting the first research problem.

Based on the result of the analysis, it showed that the kinds of personal references that occur in Bhagavad-Gita were: personal reference he, it, she and they. All of demonstrative references appear such as: selective nominal demonstrative, neutral demonstrative adverb. Selective nominal demonstrative that appear in the text namely, reference this (singular and plural). Whereas, neutral demonstrative also appear namely, demonstrative reference the. In addition, comparative reference occur in the book, was general comparison. General comparison that occur was reference similarly. Particular comparison that occur were most, less, and -est. Each of types consists of subtypes of reference items. They were exophoric and endophoric when the presupposed items follow the texts.

Finally, from the analysis, it can be concluded that reference items play the important role in order to build and make a good text because they are required in order to create cohesion in the text.

Keywords: Cohesive device, reference, cohesion, personal, demonstrative, comparative

→ = relation/referring (anaphorically or cataphorically) = kind of reference

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of Study

Discourse is a complex of social, psychological, and linguistic phenomena subject both to the rules of grammar, which all speakers of a language know implicitly, and to the general principles of discourse coherence. Within discourse analysis research, attention is typically focused on texts, either oral or written, and on the roles and strategies of the speakers (writers) and the hearers (readers) who participate in that text. (Gary: 1997)

Generally, a good text has to be coherent. The important thing in organizing a text is to provide the thing that is coming next after the beginning. In order to make a coherent text, several items are used namely cohesive devices in organizing the text. Grammatical cohesion consists of reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction.

Reference is very important to make a text unified since it display a referential item to something or someone within the text. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976), reference is specific nature of information that signalled for retrieval. Reference of information retrieved is the referential meaning. The reference consists of Personal Reference, Demonstrative Reference, and Comparative Reference.

Reference can be found in every text such as books, novels, newspapers, magazines, etc. Book is one of the most important media that contains much

information and knowledge. Book can be classified based on its content such as, religious, history, short story, economics, etc. Bhagavad-Gita can be classified as one of religious books. Bhagavad-Gita is very popular especially for Hinduism because it is one of the Hindu scriptures which is written in Sanskrit originally. Bhagavad-Gita contains the dialogue between prince Arjuna and his charioteer Krishna. It is a part of the Hindu scripture, epic Mahabharata which is written in book. The contents of Bhagavad-Gita are important and interesting because they describe moral and how to know Personality of Godhead. Bhagavad-Gita is religion book that are published in many languages including English, Sanskrit, French, Indonesian, Spanish, and many other languages. There are many references can be found in Bhagavad-Gita. Based on description above, it is interesting to analyze text that is found in Bhagavad-Gita.

1.2. Problems of study

In this study, referential cohesion which is included in one kind of grammatical cohesion is exposed in more details. Regarding the background stated above, the research problems can be formulated as follows:

1. What types of references occur in “Bhagavad-Gita”?

1.3. Aims of study

Based on the problem of study, the aims of study are:

1 To identify types of reference occur in “Bhagavad-Gita”. 2 To analyze the reference items presented in “Bhagavad-Gita”.

1.4. Scope of Discussion

This study limits the discussion according to the problems of the study. The scope of discussion is focused on:

1 Types of reference that occurs in “Bhagavad-Gita”. Types of reference in this study consist of personal reference, demonstrative reference, and comparative reference.

2 The reference items presented in “Bhagavad-Gita”. The reference are classified based on exophoric (situational) and endophoric (textual).

1.5. Research Method

In conducting a scientific writing, a methodology is the important factor that should be used as a guide by the researcher. Methodology is a set of procedures in the systematic study that are applied within a discipline. It is the way to observe the data source in steps. The steps or the procedures of the research method, guide the researcher to find the answers through the data source, the method and technique of collecting data, and method and technique analysing data.

1.5.1 Data source

The data source in this study was taken from Bhagavad-Gita As It Is by A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. It was published by The Bhaktivedanta Book Trust in 1972, Mumbai and printed at Rekha Printers. Bhagavad-Gita is book that are very popular especially for Hinduism. Bhagavad-Gita contains a dialogue between prince Arjuna and his charioteer Krishna in epic Mahabhrata. Bhagavad-Gita also describes about moral and how to know Personality of Godhead. Bhagavad-Gita is published in many languages including English, Sanskrit, French, Indonesian, Spanish, and many other languages. It is popular in whole of world. Moreover, there were many references items could be found in Bhagavad-Gita. Based on description above, this data source was interesting to be analyzed.

1.5.2 Method and Technique of Collecting Data

The method was applied in this study was by using documentation method. Documentation methodis the use of outside sources ordocuments, to support the viewpoint or argument of anacademicwork. In this study, the discussion was limited in order to get the points of study and avoid the uncontrolled discussion. The study was concentrated on the purport or explanation of Bhagavad-Gita chapter 1 and texts were randomly selected. The text were chosen namely, text 3 and text 11. There were some steps taken in collecting data:

2 Prepare to make a list of the words in the sentence containing reference. 3 Rewrite and note the sentence according to the types of reference. 1.5.3 Method and Technique of Analyzing Data

The data were qualitatively analyzed based on the theory Cohesion by Halliday and Hasan. All the data were classified based on the types of the reference. The analysis was continued by analyzing how reference items were presented in Bhagavad-Gita. To know how the way to presented the reference must be known at first, then it can be determined whether items refer to outside the text (exophoric) or inside the text (endophoric). When refer to the item inside the text, it may refer to cataphorically or anaphorically. The reference items found in every sentence were signalled by bold and circle forms. The theory of cohesion by Halliday and Hasan was used to determine the types of references in the text to answer first and second problem. Besides, theory discourse proposed by David Nunan was used to support in analysing types of reference.

1.5.4 Method and Technique of Presenting the Analysis

This study used descriptive method in presenting the analysis. First, in order to answer the first problem, the data was classified into the types of reference, by showing the data in the form of sentence. The data were in bold and circle form. Finally, in the second problem, the data are shown in bold, circle, and arrow. Then, the analysis described descriptively and in form of table. As a result, the readers can understand it easily.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURES, CONCEPTS AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1Review of Literatures

In order to get a deeper understanding in analysing the types of references that occur in the article, it is important reconsider several studies and undergraduate theses which have been written previously and correlated with the topic of character analysis.

Suwendra (2009) on his thesis entitled “The Analysis of Reference in The Sport Articles of the Jakarta Post” , investigates the types of reference items that

occur in the English text and to analyse reference chains presented in the text. The theory used is proposed by Halliday and Hasan (1992) combined with theory of Discourse Analysis by David Nunan (1993), in which he states that theory of discourse is the interpretation of the communicative event in the context.

Widiasih (2008) , the thesis entitled “The Analysis of Reference Items in

the Article Jakarta Post”. This thesis analyzes the types of the reference that used

in the in the articles and identifies the textual relations that are presented in the article. The theory used in this thesis is proposed by M.A.K. Halliday and Hasan. The supporting theory is proposed by David Nunan. In this thesis, the data is analyzed by qualitative method. The analysis shows that the types of reference that appear are Personal Reference, Demonstrative Reference, and Comparative

Reference. The reference is also presented in the form of textual relation such as anaphoric reference and cataphoric reference.

Prajanata (2007) on her thesis entitled “The analysis of Personal Reference

in the Children Story “Ali Baba and The Forty Thieves”, present the problems of what types of personal references are used in the children story entitled Ali Baba and The Forty Thieves and how they are presented in the children story entitled Ali Baba and The Forty Thieves. The theory used is proposed by Halliday and Hasan (1976) entitled Cohesion in English. The finding of research is that the types of personal references are found in this children story but there is no possessive pronoun in this children story. The total of personal reference is the third person reference, he and they, and the possessive determiner his and their.

The similarity from three theses above with the present study is in the

main theory that applied, namely “Cohesion In English” by M.AK. Halliday and

Ruqaiya Hasan (1967). However, the differences among these theses with others are about the data source. In the first thesis, the analysis of reference are in the sport articles of the Jakarta Post. The second analysis is the textual relations that are presented in the Jakarta Post. The last thesis is more focused on analysis of

Personal Reference in the Children Story “Ali Baba and The Forty Thieves”. In

these theses is more focused on analysis of reference in Bhagavad-Gita. Besides, the distinction of this theses with other theses is in presenting data. This study presents the data in form of descriptive and table.

This writing is also influenced by an ESL Asian Journal. The article

entitled “English Tex: System and Structure of Reference” by Sarkar (1992). He

discusses what system and structure of reference and what types of referential cohesion mostly occur in The English Text. The finding of research, there are three of reference mostly occur in the English text: Personal Reference, Demonstrative Reference, and Comparative Reference.

2.2 Concepts

In giving more understanding about the topic discussed in this study, in this section, there are concepts to be described; there are cohesion, reference.

2.2.1 Cohesion

Cohesion expressed through the strata organization of language since it is a semantic relation. Language explained a multiple coding system comprising three levels of coding, or strata, that are: the sematic (meaning), the lexico grammar (forms) and the phonological and the orthographic expression. In everyday terminology, meaning put into terminology, and wording into sound or writing. (Halliday and Hasan, 1976:5)

2.2.2 Reference

Halliday and Hasan (1976:31) state that reference is potentially cohesive relation, since the source of the interpretation may itself be an element of the text. Halliday and Hasan (1976:31) propose the definition of the reference as a specific nature of information that signaled for retrieval. The information to be retrieved, in the case of reference, is the referential meaning, the identity of the particular

thing or class of things that is being referred too. The cohesion lies in the continuity of reference, whereby the same thing enters into the discourse a second time. Reference is a semantic relation, a relation between meanings of particular instances rather than between words or other items of linguistic form. Thus reference item is no way constrained to match the grammatical class of the item it refers too.

2.3Theoretical Framework

The main theory that used in this study is “Cohesion in English” by M.AK.

Halliday and Ruqaiya Hasan (1967) and this writing also use other theory to support the main theory namely, from David Nunan (1993) Cohesive device in

discourse text in his book “Introducing Discourse Analysis”.

Reference is specific nature of information that is signal for retrieval. The information to be retrieved, in the case of reference, is the referential meaning, the identity of particular thing or class of things that is being referred. Reference can be divided into two terms, exophoric, and edophoric. The exophoric reference signals that reference be made to context of situation; meanwhile the endophoric reference is general name for reference within the text. Endophoric reference are divided into anaphoric and cataphoric. Anaphoric is reference of item that must be made to the preceding text, while cataphoric is reference of item that must be made to the following text.

Moreover, reference is divided into three types; they are personal reference, demonstrative reference and comparative reference. Personal reference is

reference by means of functions of speech situation, through category of person. Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, by a scale of proximity. The last one, comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity of similarity.

2.3.1 Reference as one aspect of cohesion

Reference is a potentially cohesive relation, since the source of the interpretation may itself be an element of text. Halliday and Hasan (1776: 31) propose the definition of reference as the specific nature of information that is signalled for retrieval. The information to be retrieved, in the case of reference, is the referential meaning, the identities of particular thing or class of things that is being referred to. The cohesion lies in the continuity of reference, whereby the same thing enters into the discourse a second time. Reference is a semantic relation, a relation between meaning of particular instances rather than between words or other items of linguistic form. Thus reference item is in no way constrained to match the grammatical class of the item it refer to.

2.3.2 Endophoric and Exophoric Reference

According to Halliday and Hasan (1985: 75-76), any linguistic unit form a text deals with two environments: the extra linguistic environment (the context), one which relevant to the total text, and the linguistic environment, (the co-text) in which the language accompanying the linguistic unit under focus. So does reference.

Both context and co-context have crucial roles in the instance of reference. The environment in which the presupposition is identifiable determines whether the reference is endophoric relation (endophora) or exophoric relation (exophora) (Halliday and Hasan, 1976). When the source of identification lies outside the co-text and can be found only by examining the conco-text, it is called exophoric reference; when the source of the identification lies in the text, the reference is endophoric. Endophoric reference, has function in the text either as anaphoric, that is reference to the preceding text, or cataphoric, that is reference to the following text. For example:

Exophora

Stop doing that here. I‟m trying to work.

(Halliday and Hasan, 1985: 76)

The item that cannot be interpreted, except we involve the context in which the sentences appears.

Endophora

Anaphora: I like reading. It can increase my knowledge.

(it refers backward to reading)

(Halliday and Hasan, 1985: 77)

I have secret information today. John is shot by the army

(Halliday and Hasan, 1985: 78)

Both exophoric and endophoric reference embody an instruction to retrieve from elsewhere the necessary for interpreting the passage. The essential thing of reference, both endophoric (textual) and exophoric (situational) is that there is a presupposition that must be satisfied; the thing referred to has to be identifiable somehow. Only endophoric reference is cohesive, since exophoric reference contributes s to the creation of the text, it links the language with the context of situation.(Halliday and Hasan, 1976)

The following diagram allows us to recognize certain distinction within the class of reference items, according to their different uses and “phoric” tendencies.

(Halliday and Hasan, 1976:33)

In referential cohesion, reference which refers to situational element is the more precious and important thing than reference that refers to any other elements

Reference

(Situational) exophora

(Textual) endophora

(to preceding text) anaphora

(To following text) cataphora

in a text. Therefore, situational reference is claimed preceding textual reference. Logically, it can be seen in entitling process (that refers to a thing in the context of situation) through the situational reference (that refers to a thing that is identified in the text environment).

(Halliday and Hasan, 1976)

2.3.3 Types of Reference

Based on its type, reference can be divided into three types. They are personal references, demonstrative references, and comparative references

(Halliday and Hasan, 1976:37)

2.3.3.1 Personal Reference

Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation through category of person (first person, second person and third person) ; it is related to the number categories of singular and plural. It involves personal pronoun, possessive determiner and possessive pronoun.

Halliday and Hasan (1976) state that there is a principle distinction semantically in the personal system of reference that is between the person defined by their roles in communication process and all other entities. The role can be divided into Speech Roles; they are the roles of speaker and addressee. The distinction is that in term of the traditional categories of person, it is between the first and second person on one hand (I, YOU, WE), and third person on the other (HE, SHE, IT, THEY, ONE).

For more detail explanation, below the tabular form was exposed in transitional grammar.

Speech Roles Other Roles

speaker addressee Specific Generalized

Human

One I me

Mine my

You you

Yours you

Human Non-human

More than one We us Ours our He him His his It it (its) its One ones -one‟s They them Theirs their

Those items above are all reference items. They refer to something by specifying its function or role in speech situation. This system of reference is known as person, where “person” is used in the special sense of „role‟. The traditionally recognized categories are first person, second person, and third person. These categories are interesting with the number categories of singular and plural.

The example of personal reference is the first singular I:

 There was a brief note from Susan. She just said, I am not coming home this weekend.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:44) I, in the quoted clause, refer back to Susan in the first sentence. This is instance of anaphora. I still refers to the speaker, but we have to look in the text to find out who the speaker is.

 I supposed my face must have given me away, for suddenly she swept across and kissed me, but fortunately for my good resolutions she

didn‟t linger close to me but promptly returned to her chair.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:52)  The Medical Director thank you for your attendance at the X-Ray Unit

and is happy to inform you that your film is satisfactory. You should keep this letter and take it with you whenever you have an X-Ray in future.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:53) The example of personal reference the third singular person he and its changes:

 If the buyer wants to know the condition of the property, he has to have another survey carried out on his own behalf.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:53)

 Mikhail Gorbachev didn‟t have to change the world. He could have

chosen to rule much as his predecessors did.

(David Nunan, 1993:23)

The example of personal reference the third singular person she and its changes:

 A few moments later, Miss Emily entered the room. She was young and not very tall, with blonde hair and blue eyes. Her clothes were not suitable, but they were clean and tidy. She had lovely lace. I noticed at once that she looked worried and unhappy.

(David Nunan, 1993:23)

 “Jane, this is Alice Listen, I just got a call from Betty, and she said she

heard something‟s happened out there. Have you heard anything” That

was the way they phrased it, call after call. She picked up the telephone and began relaying this same message to some of the others .

(David Nunan, 1993:23)

The example personal reference the first plural person it and is changes:

 This note was found in my father‟s luggage. It is very strange. I

don‟t know what it means. Perhaps it isn‟t very important, but I

wanted you to see it.

 The dog looked very strange. It had very long ears and very short legs and its eyes were large and sad.

(David Nunan, 1993:24)

The example of personal reference the first plural person we and its changes:

 We ran out into the garden, replied Shelton. We looked everywhere, but

we found nothing. In the morning, we went to our father‟s room.

(David Nunan, 1993:25)

The example of personal reference the first plural person they and its changes:

 As we hurried along, I thought about the man and the pygmy. I wondered what would happen when we found them. I know that they were dangerous.

(David Nunan, 1993:25)

 A few minutes later, twelve children ran into the room. Their clothes were dirty and ragged. They had no shoes on their feet. Their hair was untidy and their face had not been washed for a very long time. But they seemed happy and careful.

(David Nunan, 1993:25) 2.3.3.2 Demonstrative Reference

Demonstrative reference is essentially a form of verbal pointing. The speaker identifies the referent by locating it on a scale of proximity. This kind of reference can be divided into selective category and non-selective or neutral

category. The selective category involves nominal demonstrative and adverbial/circumstantial demonstrative. Below the figure of system are presented.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:57) A. The selective and Adverbial Demonstratives: here, then, now, and there.

The adverbial demonstrative refers to the location of process in space or time, and they normally do so directly, not via the location of some person or object that is participating in the process. Then they typically function as Adjunct in the clause, not as elements within the nominal group. They have a

neutral

near the

far

singular

participant

plural

place

time selective

These those

Here there Near: far:

Now then

secondary function as Qualifier, as in that man there. (Halliday and Hasan1976:57-58)

A. The Selective nominal demonstrative: this, these that, those. i. Near and not near: this/these versus that/those

Both this and that refer anaphorically to something that has been said before. There is some tendency, in the dialogue for speaker to use this to refer to something he himself has said that to refer to something said by his interlocutor.

For example:

 There seems to have been a great deal of sheer carelessness.

This is what I can‟t understand. (Halliday and Hasan1976:60)

In term, these and those are applied in the text similarly with this and that. For example:

 I like the lions, and I like the polar bears. These are my favourites. Those are my favourite too. (Halliday and Hasan1976:60)

Proximity is interpreted in the terms of time; that tends to be associated with a past-time referent and this for one in present or future. For example:

a. We went to opera last night. That was our first outing for months.

b. We‟re going to opera tonight. This 11 be our first outing for months.

ii. Singular and Plural: this/that versus these/those

In general this/that simply refers to count singular or mass noun while these/those to count plural. However, based on the general nature of anaphoric reference items, they refer to the meaning and not to the forms that have gone before. For example:

 „Where do you come from? Said the Red Queen. „And where are

going? Look up, speak nicely and don‟t twiddled yours fingers all the

times‟. Alice attended to all these directions, and explained as well as

she could, that she had lost her way. (Halliday and Hasan1976:62)

The plural form, these in the example above may refer anaphorically not only to a preceding plural noun, but also to set there is plurality in meaning. For example:

 I‟ve ordered two turkeys, a leg lamb, some cooked ham and tongue, and

two pounds of minced beef.

Whatever are you going to do with all that foods?

(Halliday and Hasan1976:62) iii. Head and Modifier: (demonstrative adjective) can refer without restriction

to „any class of noun. For example:

 „Now the cleverest thing I ever did‟, the Knight went on after a pause „was

inventing a new pudding during the meat-course.

…I don‟t believe that pudding was cooked”.

It is possible to omit the second pudding and say I don’t believe that pudding was cooked. A demonstrative has Head (demonstrative pronoun), however, can refer freely to non-human but it is highly restricted in its referent to human nouns except in the identification of the other, for example:

 `Do you want to know the women who design it`?

That was Marry Smith. (Halliday and Hasan1976:63) The principle is: demonstrative pronoun corresponds to it and not to he or she, and demonstrative pronoun is a special future of demonstrative functioning as Head.

iv. Related to the last information of demonstrative reference, this and that, they may be used without being followed by noun. For example:

 Eventually, my father bought me a cell phone. This is what I need. (Halliday and Hasan1976:65)  They broke the Chinese vase.

a. That was valuable. b. That was careless.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:66) In the text example (25.a) that refers to object vase, while in example (25.b) that refers to the total event (their breaking of the vase). If

there had been more than one breakage we could have had those were valuable but not those were careless.

v. Anaphoric and Cataphoric Demonstrative

In my ways, the resembles the demonstrative, form one for of which it is derived. Originally, it is reduced form that, functioning only as modifier which is reflected in its meaning.

The as a definite article indicates that the item in question is specific and identifiable, that somewhere the information necessary for identifying is recoverable, either in the situation or in the text. The reference can be either exophoric or endophoric. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976:71), if it is exophoric , there are two ways to identify the item.

a. The item is identifiable in the specific situation. For example:

 Don‟t go; the train’s coming. (Halliday and Hasan1976:71)

The train is interpreted as `the train we`ve both expecting.

b. The referent is identifiable on extra linguistic grounds no matter what the situation, as in the sun, the government ‘(of our country)’ ; since there only one object referred to. Meanwhile, in the stars, the reference is the whole class. If the reference is endophoric, it can be anaphoric or reference backward. Only anaphoric reference in which the is cohesive. For example:

 Anna makes a pan cake. The cake will be given to her boyfriend, John.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:72) The can never refer forward cohesively. It can only refer to a modifying element with the same nominal group as itself. For example:

 The ascent of Mount Everest. (Halliday and Hasan1976:72)

The significance of the in that instance is a signal of identity; or rather, of identifiably, showing that criteria identifying WHICH ascent is intended are recoverable.

2.3.3.3 Comparative Reference

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 72), comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity and similarity. It involves two kinds of comparison, i.e. general comparison and particular comparison.

A. General comparison

General comparison expresses likeness and unlikeness between things. The likeness can take the form of identity, same, equal, identical, identically, where `two things` are, in fact, the same as similarity, such similar, so similar, so similarly, like wise. The unlikeness, on the other hand, takes the form of difference, other different else, differently otherwise

a) It`s the same cat as the one we saw yesterday. b) It`s a similar cat as the one we saw yesterday. c) It`s a different cat as the one we saw yesterday.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:78) Comparatives reference embraces the same set of possibilities with the two other references, personal and demonstrative references. The reference of the comparison can be in the situation (exophoric) or can be in the text (endophoric). For example:

 Would you prefer the other seats? (Halliday and Hasan1976:79)  Jennings is here to see you

 I was expecting someone different (Halliday and Hasan1976:79) In the first example is exophoric, since other, in the case, refers to the comparison, which is retrievable from the situation. In second and three examples, interpretation occurs as `different from some person` in preceding text. So, it may be anaphoric.

a) The other squirrels hunted up and down the nut bushes: but Nutkin gathered robin`s pincushions off a briar bush, and stuck them full of pine-needle pins.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:80)

Here, other is cataphoric to Nutkin; although the two are separated only by a semicolon, the effect is cohesive, as they are not structurally related. Particular comparison expresses comparability between things in respect of quantity and

quality; there must be a standard of reference by which one thing is said to be superior, equal or inferior. For example:

b) We are demanding higher living standard. (Halliday and Hasan1976:80)

It may be some generalized situational referent-presumably `than we have now`; so such as instance is exophorically cohesive. Superlative forms are non-referential because they are self-defining. They act as defining modifier and being shown to be defining in the usual way by the presence of the definite article. The other example of comparatives:

c) The little dog barked as noisily as the big one. (Halliday and Hasan1976:83)

Here the reference is cataphoric in which it does not refer to a thing but the process: not the big one and the little dog [barked].

d) Apparently Brown resigned, when his proposal was rejected.

I wish he could have acted less precipitately. (Halliday and Hasan1976:83)

The anaphoric comparative is less precipitately, it referent is identifiable as resigned. The other expressions of comparatives are so and such, which have meanings extremely and even perhaps there is a nuance of such as you would never have imagined. For examples:

a) The war scenes in the film were so terrifying

B. Particular Comparison

Particular comparison expresses comparability between things in respect of particular property. The property in the question may be a matter of quantity or of quality.

(i) If the comparison is in terms of quantity, it is expressed in the Numerative element in the structure of the nominal group; either (a) by a comparative quantifier, e.g.: more in more mistakes, or (b) by an adverb of comparison sub modifying a quantifier, e.g.: as in as many mistakes.

(ii) If the comparison in in terms of quality, it is express in either of two ways: (1) in the epithet in the nominal group, either by the comparative adjective, e.g.: easier, more difficult in easier task, more difficult tasks, or by an adverb of comparison sub modifying an adjective, e.g.: so in so in difficult a task. (2) as adjunct in the clause, either (a) by a comparative adverb, e.g: faster in Cambridge rowed faster, or (b) by an adverb of comparison submodifying an adverb, e.g.: as in she sang sweetly.

Particular comparison, like general comparison, is also referential; there must be a standard of reference by which one thing is said as superior, equal, or inferior in quality or quantity.

there had been more than one breakage we could have had those were valuable but not those were careless.

v. Anaphoric and Cataphoric Demonstrative

In my ways, the resembles the demonstrative, form one for of which it is derived. Originally, it is reduced form that, functioning only as modifier which is reflected in its meaning.

The as a definite article indicates that the item in question is specific and identifiable, that somewhere the information necessary for identifying is recoverable, either in the situation or in the text. The reference can be either exophoric or endophoric. According to Halliday and Hasan (1976:71), if it is exophoric , there are two ways to identify the item.

a. The item is identifiable in the specific situation. For example:  Don‟t go; the train’s coming. (Halliday and Hasan1976:71)

The train is interpreted as `the train we`ve both expecting.

b. The referent is identifiable on extra linguistic grounds no matter what the situation, as in the sun, the government ‘(of our country)’ ; since there only one object referred to. Meanwhile, in the stars, the reference is the whole class. If the reference is endophoric, it can be anaphoric or reference backward. Only anaphoric reference in which the is cohesive. For example:

 Anna makes a pan cake. The cake will be given to her boyfriend, John.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:72)

The can never refer forward cohesively. It can only refer to a modifying element with the same nominal group as itself. For example:

 The ascent of Mount Everest. (Halliday and Hasan1976:72) The significance of the in that instance is a signal of identity; or rather, of identifiably, showing that criteria identifying WHICH ascent is intended are recoverable.

2.3.3.3 Comparative Reference

According to Halliday and Hasan (1976: 72), comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity and similarity. It involves two kinds of comparison, i.e. general comparison and particular comparison.

A. General comparison

General comparison expresses likeness and unlikeness between things. The likeness can take the form of identity, same, equal, identical, identically, where `two things` are, in fact, the same as similarity, such similar, so similar, so similarly, like wise. The unlikeness, on the other hand, takes the form of difference, other different else, differently otherwise

a) It`s the same cat as the one we saw yesterday. b) It`s a similar cat as the one we saw yesterday. c) It`s a different cat as the one we saw yesterday.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:78) Comparatives reference embraces the same set of possibilities with the two other references, personal and demonstrative references. The reference of the comparison can be in the situation (exophoric) or can be in the text (endophoric). For example:

 Would you prefer the other seats? (Halliday and Hasan1976:79)  Jennings is here to see you

 I was expecting someone different (Halliday and Hasan1976:79) In the first example is exophoric, since other, in the case, refers to the comparison, which is retrievable from the situation. In second and three examples, interpretation occurs as `different from some person` in preceding text. So, it may be anaphoric.

a) The other squirrels hunted up and down the nut bushes: but Nutkin gathered robin`s pincushions off a briar bush, and stuck them full of pine-needle pins.

(Halliday and Hasan1976:80)

Here, other is cataphoric to Nutkin; although the two are separated only by a semicolon, the effect is cohesive, as they are not structurally related. Particular comparison expresses comparability between things in respect of quantity and

quality; there must be a standard of reference by which one thing is said to be superior, equal or inferior. For example:

b) We are demanding higher living standard. (Halliday and Hasan1976:80)

It may be some generalized situational referent-presumably `than we have now`; so such as instance is exophorically cohesive. Superlative forms are non-referential because they are self-defining. They act as defining modifier and being shown to be defining in the usual way by the presence of the definite article. The other example of comparatives:

c) The little dog barked as noisily as the big one. (Halliday and Hasan1976:83)

Here the reference is cataphoric in which it does not refer to a thing but the process: not the big one and the little dog [barked].

d) Apparently Brown resigned, when his proposal was rejected.

I wish he could have acted less precipitately. (Halliday and Hasan1976:83)

The anaphoric comparative is less precipitately, it referent is identifiable as resigned. The other expressions of comparatives are so and such, which have meanings extremely and even perhaps there is a nuance of such as you would never have imagined. For examples:

a) The war scenes in the film were so terrifying

B. Particular Comparison

Particular comparison expresses comparability between things in respect of particular property. The property in the question may be a matter of quantity or of quality.

(i) If the comparison is in terms of quantity, it is expressed in the Numerative element in the structure of the nominal group; either (a) by a comparative quantifier, e.g.: more in more mistakes, or (b) by an adverb of comparison sub modifying a quantifier, e.g.: as in as many mistakes.

(ii) If the comparison in in terms of quality, it is express in either of two ways: (1) in the epithet in the nominal group, either by the comparative adjective, e.g.: easier, more difficult in easier task, more difficult tasks, or by an adverb of comparison sub modifying an adjective, e.g.: so in so in difficult a task. (2) as adjunct in the clause, either (a) by a comparative adverb, e.g: faster in Cambridge rowed faster, or (b) by an adverb of comparison submodifying an adverb, e.g.: as in she sang sweetly.

Particular comparison, like general comparison, is also referential; there must be a standard of reference by which one thing is said as superior, equal, or inferior in quality or quantity.