Yalden’s Language Program Development

16 Figure 2.1 Kemp’s Instructional Design Model Kemp, 1977, p. 9 1 Needs Survey A needs survey is conducted to obtain information as much about the learners as possible such as communication requirements, personal needs and motivations, and relevant characteristics of learners, as well as those of their partners’ for learning to establish realistic and acceptable objectives. Furthermore, a needs survey covers two broad categories; who the learners are what they bring with them and what their purposes, needs, and wishes are in learning the Teachinglear ning Activities and Resources Goals, Topics, and General Purposes Learning Objectives Pre- assessment Support Service Evaluation Learner Characteris- tics Subject Content Revision 17 language where they are going. 2 The Description of the Purpose This stage is completed by clarifying the purposes of the language program related to students’ characteristics and students’ skills on entry to and exit from the program. 3 The Choice of a Syllabus Type The choice of a syllabus type is based on the purpose of the language program stated previously. Yalden 1987 offers six forms of the communicative syllabus as follows p. 110. Structural- Functional Syllabus Structures and Functional Syllabus Variable Focus Syllabus Functional Syllabus Fully Notional Syllabus Fully Communicative Syllabus 4 The Proto Syllabus At this stage, the preparation of the syllabus is specified in terms of the description of language and language use to be covered in the program. 5 The Pedagogical Syllabus The choice of the unit of organization in a pedagogical syllabus is revolved in this stage. Teaching, learning, and testing approaches are developed into teaching materials, testing sequence, and decisions on testing instruments. 18 6 Development and Implementation of Classroom Procedure The selection of exercise types and teaching techniques, preparation of lesson plans, and weekly schedule are developed in this stage. 7 Evaluation All the things about students, program, and teaching are being evaluated to put the goals set. Figure 2.2 presents a clear illustration of Yalden’s Language Program Development. Figure 2.2 Yalden’s Language Program Development Yalden, 1987, p. 88

2. Speaking

There are three kinds of information which are discussed in this section. They are the nature of speaking, teaching speaking skill, and teaching speaking to young learners. Each of them is elaborated as follows.

a. The Nature of Speaking

Brown and Yale as quoted by Nunan 1989 state that as a spoken language, speaking consists of short, often fragmentary utterances, in range of pronunciation pp. 26-27. However, it generally has to be learned and practiced. The variations within spoken language use are stated on the next page. Needs Survey Des- cript- ion of Pur- pose Selection Develop- ment of Syllabus Type Product- ion of a Proto Syllabus Product- ion of a Pedago- gical Syllabus Develop- ment and Implement- ation of Classroom Procedures Evalu- ation 19 a Talking to chat and talking to inform Brown et al. as cited by Luoma 2004 define chatting as “the exchange of amicable conversational twins with another speaker p. 22.” In forming anyone’s social life, chatting is aimed not only to make and maintain the social contact but also all the social wheels. In language teaching, chatting involves learners’ personalities, social behavior, and cultures. Those aspects offer chatting in different cultures. Meanwhile, as cited by Luoma 2004, Brown et al. elaborate talking to inform as a speech whose aim is transferring information on a specific topic p.23. In order to make the listeners understand the speech, speakers should consider several aspects such as logical expression, questions, repetitions, and comprehension checks. a Talking in different social status Luoma 2004 proposes some factors influencing speech. They are situation, participants, ends, act sequence, key, instrumentalities, norms, and genre pp. 24-25. Those factors should be considered as the social and situational context where the talk happens. a Roles, relationships, and politeness In communicating to each other, speakers’ roles and role relationship influence the choice of words in interaction. Moreover, politeness which is influenced by maxim of quantity, quality, relation, and manner becomes the factor that should be considered.

b. Teaching Speaking Skill