Direct speech Indirect speech

65 6 Represented speech This chapter looks at the subject of represented speech in Godié. Rather than the traditional term reported speech, the term represented speech is preferred in this study. There are several reasons for this. First, unlike the term reported speech, the term represented speech does not suggest that the speech referrred to has already taken place and is therefore “reported.” Indeed, in many languages, speech that has not yet been produced but that the speaker anticipates will be, or might be, produced is expressed in the same way as speech that has been produced, as is the speaker’s own or someone else’s unexpressed thought e.g., ‘”Isn’t that smart?” heI thought’. Second, the term represented speech is a constant reminder of the fact that the speech referred to is not a reproduction but rather a representation of an actual or potential utterance, most frequently by someone other than the speaker. 1 Third, emphasizing the fact that represented speech is of an interpretive rather than a descriptive nature also allows us to account better for the different types of represented speech. Indeed, the different speech types can now be viewed as the fact that the speaker is claiming different degrees of resemblance with the original speech, “direct” speech claiming a higher degree of resemblance than “indirect” speech. Fourth, the notion of represented speech can accommodate phenomena that do not normally fit in the category of reported speech. For example, many languages express mental states such as belief, desire, intention, and volition as representations of speech. For example, a thought like “he wants to go” is expressed as something like “he says he will go.” Such states may even be ascribed to inanimate objects, as is the case in Godié, where the idea that a tree is about to fall can be encoded as “the tree says it will fall.” Finally, the notion of represented speech also includes instances where the speech is not formulated but where only the illocutionary force of the speech event is given, such as when the verb accuse, reproach, or refuse is mentioned. Indeed, even though only the speech event is referred to in these instances, these are clearly ways of representing speech. 2

6.1 Formal features of represented speech

The two ususal types of represented speech or thought, namely direct and indirect speech, are found in Godié.

6.1.1 Direct speech

With direct speech all deictic elements of the original speech are retained, namely the so-called speech pronouns I, we, you as well as all deictic elements, including determiners e.g., this, that; spatial adverbs e.g., here, over there; and time adverbs relating to the moment of speech e.g., yesterday, tomorrow. Direct speech in Godié is often introduced by an address term, such as “my friend”, as in example 127a; by an exlamation, as in 127b; or by the uptake element -aa ‘UPT’, as in 127c. 3 127 a. a lä n ɔɔ [sese] bhlɩ kʋ n bha nä [sese] NH 1 say my_friend NUPT region on 1 S leave: ICP SP 1 NUPT ‘He =Gopleu said, “My friend, it is from afar that I am coming, 1 It is thus a case of what is called “interpretive use” in Relevance Theory see Sperber and Wilson 1995; Blass 1990; and Blakemore 1992. 2 This study will not deal further with these non-formulated types of represented speech, although something about their function will be said in §6.3. 3 Note that in writing, direct speech begins with a capital letter following the comma that separates the speech margin see §6.2 from the represented speech. Quotation marks are not used in Godié because of the tone signs. n yä sɩä [sese] 1 S XPER be:tired NUPT I am tired.”’ [sigo 54–55] b. duny ʋa lä ɔ a po -w ʋ nyukwli village:people say EXCL 1 2 P listen CNT 2 VC ears ‘The villagers said, “Oh, listen”’ [lueuzi 64] c. Dacligoo lä -aa n yi wäl ɩɩ kʋ bhlü Dacligo say UPT 1 S XFUT matter: DEF VPC take Dacligo said, “Alright, Ill take the matter upon me.”’ [dacligo 18] Direct speech can also occur within direct speech in Godié, as in example 128. 4 128 ɔ lä […] -amʋ naa yii ŋwɛɛ -kä kʋ 3 S say 1 S : TH 1 S : GEN eyes: DEF be_closed: CP CLU 3 VPC ‘He said, “[…] As for me, you know that my eyes are closed nɩ -n sonöö -mä -n ŋwɛ yi kʋ [-kpazebhleku] ADD 1 2 S speak: APL :1 SO : ICP ADD 4 2 S close eyes VPC NUPT and you are saying to me, ‘Close your eyes’”’ [sigo 137–140]

6.1.2 Indirect speech

With indirect speech the speech pronouns I, you, we are absent, as the speaker and hearer of the represented speech are referred to by third person pronouns. Deictic time and space adverbs today, here are not found either but are replaced by non-deictic elements, such as ‘that day’ in example 129. 129 pɛlɩɔ lä 5 ɔ -kʋ - lɔɔ -aaa […] priest: DEF say 3 S BE 1: CP there a_long_time ‘The priest said he was around a long time.… - lɔɔ ylʋʋ kʋ, ɔɔ - wʋ dëdü -lü there: GEN day: DEF on 3 S : XNEG CNT 2 lunch eat: CP That day he said he hadn’t eaten lunch.’ [neyo 64.1–64.3] As for represented open questions, they have the same linguistic form in indirect speech and in direct speech, as the question particle bhä is present in both. Therefore, unless the stretch of represented speech contains deictic elements, it is impossible to determine on a formal basis whether the represented question is direct or indirect, as illustrated in example 130. 4 There may be restrictions on which utterances can occur as direct speech within another direct speech but this needs more study. 5 In written form indirect speech begins after the speech margin without a comma and without a capital letter. nɩ nn nii- -kä sä [-kpazebhleku] ADD 1 1 S : XNEG see: CP CLU 3 VPC NUPT and I cannot see, 130 wa ylɔɔ lä yuoo ŋnö bhää nä 3 P ask:3 S : CP LOP child: GEN name QW SP 1 ‘… when they asked what the name of the child was or: they asked, “What is the child’s name?”, ɔ lä wa - lɔ kplupä 3 S say 3 P bring:3 S tablet he said to bring him a tablet.’ [elisabet 82–85] In Godié, indirect speech seems to be the default format for representing speech that expresses a desire, as in example 131a, or an answer to a request, especially a negative answer, as in examples 131b and 131c. The marked form would be direct speech in those cases. Compare 131 with 127c where the acceptance of a request is expressed with direct speech. Other than this example, such marked examples of direct speech have not been found in the database for this study. 131 a. waa ducifio titi, ɔ lä ɔ kä nyie tɔɔ 3 P : GEN village:chief: DEF self 3 S say 3 S XPOT lagoon cross ‘Their village chief himself, he wanted to cross the lagoon lit. he said he was going to cross the lagoon.’ [grève 50–51] b. wamä gokpütienyʋa, wlä waa nʋ -wʋ lebhe HP : TH boat:lead: AG : PL : DEF 3 P :say 3 P : GEN do CNT 2 work ‘… those same boatmen, they said they are not working …’ [grève 33–34] c. nümnüü -lef ɩɩn, wlä waa ylä - wʋ bird: PL : DEF totality 3 P :say 3 P : XNEG want CNT 2 ‘All the birds, they said they were not willing lit. they said they didn’t want.’ [dacligo 17]

6.2 Speech margins